UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFOBMIA  PUBLICATIONS 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 


IRRIGATION   AND   SOIL  CONDITIONS   IN 

THE  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS, 

CALIFORNIA 


BY 
RALPH  D.  ROBERTSON 

Irrigation  Engineer,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.S.  Department  of  Agriculture 

AND 

J.  W.  NELSON 

Assistant  Professor  of  Soil  Technology,  University  of  California 

(Based  on  work  done  under  co-operative  agreements  between  the  Office  of 
Experiment  Stations  and  the  State  Engineering  Department  of  California,  and 
between  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  and  the  California  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station.) 


BULLETIN  No.  253 

Berkeley,  Cal.,  May,  1915 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRESS 
BERKELEY 
1915 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2012  with  funding  from 

University  of  California,  Davis  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/irrigationsoilco253robe 


Benjamin  Ide  Wheeler,  President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 
HEADS  of  divisions 
Thomas  Forsyth  Hunt,  Director. 

Eugene  W.  Hilgard,  Agricultural  Chemistry  (Emeritus). 
Edward  J.  Wickson,  Horticulture. 

Herbert  J.  Webber,  Director  Citrus  Experiment  Station;  Plant  Breeding. 
Hubert  E.  Van  Norman,  Vice-Director;  Dairy  Management. 
William  A.  Setchell,  Botany. 
Myer  E.  Jaffa,  Nutrition. 

Eobert  H.  Loughridge,  Soil  Chemistry  and  Physics  (Emeritus). 
Charles  W.  Woodworth,  Entomology. 
Ralph  E.  Smith,  Plant  Pathology. 
J.  Eliot  Coit,  Citriculture. 
John  W.  Gilmore,  Agronomy. 
Charles  F.  Shaw,  Soil  Technology. 

John  W.  Gregg,  Landscape  Gardening  and  Floriculture. 
Frederic  T.  Bioletti,  Viticulture  and  Enology. 
Warren  T.  Clarke,  Agricultural  Extension. 
John  S.  Burd,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
Charles  B.  Lipman,  Soil  Chemistry  and  Bacteriology. 
Clarence  M.  Haring,  Veterinary  Science  and  Bacteriology. 
Ernest  B.  Babcock,  Genetics. 
Gordon  H.  True,  Animal  Husbandry. 
James  T.  Barrett,  Plant  Pathology. 
Fritz  W.  Woll,  Animal  Nutrition. 
A.  V.  Stubenrauch,  Pomology. 
Walter  Mulford,  Forestry. 
W.  P.  Kelley,  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
William  G.  Hummel,  Agricultural  Education. 
Leon  M.  Davis,  Dairy  Industry. 
John  E.  Dougherty,  Poultry  Husbandry. 
Frank  Adams,  Irrigation  Practice. 
David  N.  Morgan,  Assistant  to  the  Director. 
Mrs.  D.  L.  Bunnell,  Librarian. 

Soil  Technology 

Chas.  F.  Shaw  J.  E.  Guernsey 

J.  W.  Nelson  R.  L.  Pendleton 

Alfred  Smith  C.  J.  Zinn 

Irrigation  Practice 

(In  co-operation  with  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of 

Agriculture,  and  State  Engineering  Department  of  California.) 

Frank  Adams  O.  W.  Israelsen  S.  H.  Beckett 


Samuel  Fortier,  Chief  of  Irrigation  Investigations,  Office  of  Experiment 

Stations. 
W.  F.  McClure,  State  Engineer  of  California. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 325 

General   Description 326 

Climate  328 

Soils  and  Agriculture  330 

Water  Supply  : 332 

The  Use  of  Small  Water  Supplies 333 

Tulare  and  Fresno   Counties  Citrus  Belt   334 

Soils  334 

Irrigation 339 

Placer  County  Deciduous  Fruit  Belt 346 

Soils  346 

Irrigation  351 

Butte  County  Foothill  Areas 356 

Oroville  Section  356 

Soils  . 356 

Irrigation   358 

Wyandotte-Bangor  Section 359 

Paradise  Ridge  359 

Cohasset  Ridge 360 

Shasta  and  Tehama  Counties    361 

Yuba  County 362 

Sacramento  County  363 

Eldorado  County 365 

Soils 366 

Irrigation   367 

Nevada  County  - - 368 

Amador  County    : ----- 370 

Calaveras  County    371 

Tuolumne  County  373 

Mariposa  County  374 

Madera,  Merced,  and  Stanislaus  Counties  375 

Kern  County  Citrus  Belt 376 

Summary  378 


[323] 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Fig.    1.     Irrigated  lands  near  Lemoncove,  Tulare  County  334 

Fig.    2.     Irrigated    citrus    orchard    on    steep    hillsides   near    Exeter,   Tulare 

County    335 

Fig.    3.     Mean  monthly  temperature  and  precipitation  at  Porterville,  1889- 

1913  336 

Fig.    4.     Typical  irrigation  pumping  plant  near  Lindsay,  Tulare  County  ....  340 

Fig.    5.     Delivery  of  water  from  concrete  standpipes  341 

Fig.    6.     Concrete    headflume   in    hillside    orchard   near   Porterville,    Tulare 

County    341 

Fig.    7.     Curved  furrows  in  Tulare  County  citrus  orchard  342 

Fig.    8.     Diagram  showing  combination  of  straight  and  curved  furrows  near 

Exeter,  Tulare  County  343 

Fig.    9.     Diagram  of  zigzag  furrows  in  a  Lindsay  (Tulare  County)  orange 

orchard  344 

Fig.  10.     Placer  County  irrigated  foothill  orchard  near  Penryn  345 

Fig.  11.     Lower  Sierra  foothill  orchard  near  Loomis,  Placer  County  346 

Fig.  12.     Mean  monthly  rainfall  at  Auburn,  1872-1913  347 

Fig.  13.     Irrigated  orchard  near  Eocklin,  Placer  County  348 

Fig.  14.     Slate  soil  near  Auburn,  Placer  County,  showing  depth  and  character  349 

Fig.  15.     Typical  rolling  foothills  near  Colfax,  Placer  County  350 

Fig.  16.     Irrigated  orchard  near  Auburn,  Placer  County  351 

Fig.  17.     "V"  flume  used  for  conveying  water  down  steep  slopes,  Placer 

County    352 

Fig.  18.     Single  irrigation  furrow  and  clean  cultivation  near  Penryn,  Placer 

County    353 

Fig.  19.     Diagram  showing  semi-circle  irrigation  furrows  around  trees,  Placer 

County    354 

Fig.  20.     Photograph   showing   semi-circle  irrigation   furrows   around   trees, 

Placer  County  355 

Fig.  21.     Diagram  of  typical  furrow  and  ditch  arrangement,  Placer  County 

orchard  355 

Fig.  22.     Mean  monthly  temperatures  and  precipitation   at  Oroville,   1885- 

1913  357 

Fig.  23.     Typical  rolling  foothills  near  Browns  Valley,  Yuba  County  362 

Fig.  24.     Irrigating  an  orchard  near  Fairoaks,  Sacramento  County,  with  two 

furrows  and  with  sacks  in  head-ditch  to  prevent  washing  364 

Fig.  25.     Testing  depth  of  percolation  with  a  6-foot  steel  rod  near  Fairoaks, 

Sacramento  County  365 

Fig.  26.  Mean  monthly  rainfall  at  Nevada  City,  Nevada  County,  1865-1913..  368 
Relief  map  of  California  showing  in  solid  black  the  general  location  of  the 

arable  acres  in  the  Sierra  foothills  Back  Cover 

[324] 


IRRIGATION  AND  SOIL  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  SIERRA 
NEVADA  FOOTHILLS,  CALIFORNIA 

BY 

EALPH  D.  ROBERTSON  and  J.  W.  NELSON* 


INTRODUCTION 

The  purpose  of  this  report  is  to  show  the  present  status  and  the 
possibilities  of  irrigation  in  the  foothills  along'  the  western  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  California,  to  describe,  in  general,  the  soils  of  this 
region,  and  to  discuss  the  adaptation  of  these  soils  to  various  crops. 
The  intent  is  thus  to  furnish  information  on  the  agricultural  resources 
of  the  various  sections  covered. 

Irrigation  development  in  this  part  of  California  has  been  compar- 
atively slow,  and  yet  many  of  the  same  agricultural  and  horticultural 
opportunities  are  offered  there  that  are  offered  in  the  valleys  below. 
The  relatively  slow  development  in  these  foothills  has  been  due  prin- 
cipally to  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities  and  to  the  more  general 
interest  there  in  mining  than  in  farming.  As  long  as  gold  could  be 
washed  from  the  soil,  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  money  that  could 
be  made  by  the  slower  processes  of  agriculture. 

The  Sierra  foothills  possess  extremely  favorable  conditions  for 
growing  certain  crops  and  the  time  may  soon  come  when  this  belt  of 
elevated  land  will  become  one  of  the  most  important  agricultural  dis- 
tricts in  California.  Every  agricultural  product  that  can  be  grown  in 
the  great  central  plain  can  also  be  produced  here.  The  chief  produc- 
tion is  likely,  however,  to  be  confined  to  deciduous  and  citrus  orchards 
and  to  vineyards. 

The  climate  of  these  foothills  is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the 
central,  valley,  but  the  greater  freedom  from  frost  possessed  by  the 
so-called  foothill  thermal  belt  is  a  distinct  horticultural  advantage. 


*  In  the  preparation  of  the  report  Mr.  Robertson  has  given  particular  atten- 
tion to  matters  of  irrigation  practice  and  possibilities  and  Professor  Nelson  has 
given  particular  attention  to  matters  of  soils  and  crop  adaptation. 

The  expense  of  the  investigation,  in  so  far  as  it  related  to  irrigation,  has 
been  met  from  funds  contributed  by  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  and  the 
California  State  Department  of  Engineering.  The  expense,  in  so  far  as  the 
investigation  related  to  soils  and  crops,  has  been  paid  by  the  California  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.  Neither  party  assumes  any  responsibility  for  the 
parts  prepared  by  the  representative  of  the  other  party. 

[325] 


326  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Water  for  irrigation  is  available  for  much  of  the  land  from  numerous 
streams  and  reservoirs.  The  soils  are  generally  fertile  and  particularly 
adapted  to  the  growing  of  fruit  and  certain  sections  have  made  rapid 
progress.  Tulare  County,  the  citrus  orchards  of  which  are  largely  in 
the  foothill  belt,  now  ranks  first  among  the  counties  of  the  State  in 
acreage  planted  to  oranges.  Placer  County,  farther  north,  is  taking 
a  leading  place  among  the  deciduous  fruit  districts,  its  shipments  of 
fresh  or  "green"  fruit  recently  amounting  to  about  35  per  cent  of 
the  total  output  of  the  State.  The  success  that  has  been  obtained  in 
these  two  sections  can  be,  and  in  more  or  less  measure  is  being  accom- 
plished in  other  localities  of  the  region. 

Irrigation  in  the  Sierra  foothills  is  not  accomplished  without  some 
difficulty.  Topographical  features  require  methods  of  irrigation  essen- 
tially different  from  those  used  in  the  valleys.  Consequently  infor- 
mation about  the  methods  that  have  been  worked  out  there,  and  that 
are  described  in  this  report,  should  be  of  value  to  other  localities 
similarlv  situated. 


GENERAL  DESCRIPTION 

The  Sierra  foothills  of  California  comprise  a  belt  of  land  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  extending  from  Tehachapi,  at  the 
southern  end  of  San  Joaquin  Valley,  to  Redding,  at  the  head  of 
Sacramento  Valley,  a  distance  of  approximately  400  miles.  The 
average  breadth  of  the  belt  is  about  20  miles,  and  within  this  territory 
are  included  approximately  5,000,000  acres,  or  5  per  cent  of  the  total 
land  surface  of  the  State.  The  arable  portion  of  the  foothills  comprises 
from  about  %  to  about  %  of  the  total  area,  depending  on  the  portion 
of  the  1,400,000  acres  sometimes  classed  as  "plains"  that  are  included 
with  the  higher  areas  lying  above  them.1  Above  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  the  foothills  rise  abruptly,  first  with  low  broken  ranges  and 
spurs,  interspersed  with  isolated  hills  and  small  valleys,  then  followed 
by  ranges  of  gradually  increasing  height.  In  the  foothills  bordering 
the  Sacramento  Valley  the  rise  is  more  gradual.  The  general  topo- 
graphy consists  of  deeply  dissected  canyons,   rugged,   rocky   ridges, 

i  The  term  "foothill"  as  used  in  this  report  is  intended  to  cover  the  area 
extending  from  the  main  floor  of  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys  up  to 
elevations  of  about  3000  feet.  The  higher  east  side  areas  of  the  valleys  that 
are  generally  classed  as  "plains"  are  therefore,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
especially  in  Tulare  County,  considered  as  embraced  within  the  "foothill"  belt. 
For  a  more  restricted  classification  of  Sierra  foothills,  embracing  1,519,000  acres 
of  arable  land,  see  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  254,  pp.  19  and  28. 


Bulletin  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  327 

slopes,  rounded  hills  of  gentle  to  moderate  contour,  and  small,  narrow, 
winding  valleys.  In  many  sections  of  the  foothill  region  the  land  is 
covered  with  a  coarse  growth  of  chapparal,  scrub  oak,  and  "digger" 
or  gray  leaf  pine.  Large  areas,  again,  are  barren  of  trees,  and  in  these, 
owing  to  the  shallowness  of  the  soil  and  to  the  stony  character  of  the 
surface,  the  land  is  useful  only  for  grazing.  In  the  northern  and 
central  portions  there  are  visible  signs  of  former  volcanic  activity. 
Lava  beds  cover  nearly  the  entire  country  north  of  Feather  River,  and 
a  heavy  flow  of  lava  can  also  be  traced  as  far  south  as  Tuolumne 
County. 

The  principal  irrigation  development  of  the  foothill  belt  is  found 
in  three  sections,  namely,  in  the  Tulare  and  Fresno  Counties  citrus 
belt,  in  the  Placer  County  deciduous  fruit  belt,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
Oroville,  in  Butte  County.  Because  development  has  gone  farthest  in 
these  three  sections,  irrigation  conditions  in  them  are  described  more 
in  detail  than  are  those  of  the  other  districts  of  the  foothills.  While 
in  this  report  an  altitude  of  2500  to  3000  feet  is  taken  as  the  upper 
limit  of  the  foothills,  the  apple  flourishes  in  the  higher  altitudes  and 
hardier  deciduous  fruits  may  be  grown  up  to  a  height  of  at  least  4000 
feet.  Stock  raising  is  generally  practiced  in  these  higher  altitudes,  and 
the  mountains  afford  summer  grazing  for  thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep 
from  the  valleys. 

The  Sierra  foothills  have  been  mainly  known  for  their  early 
mining  activities.  The  fact  has  an  important  bearing  on  irrigation 
there  because  the  ditches  now  used  for  irrigation  were  originally  con- 
structed for  mining  purposes.  The  eager  gold  seekers  were  early  con- 
fronted with  the  problem  of  securing  an  adequate  water  supply  for 
carrying  on  their  mining  operations,  because1  for  hydraulic  mining, 
water  was  needed  in  large  and  unfailing  quantities.  In  this  rough  and 
broken  country  many  engineering  difficulties  were  encountered  in  the 
construction  of  ditches,  and  because  of  this,  and  the  high  cost  of  labor, 
the  ditches  now  in  use  for  irrigation  represent  a  very  large  original 
investment.  After  the  exhaustion  of  the  richer  gold  deposits  and  the 
passage  of  laws  prohibiting  hydraulic  mining,  many  of  the  residents 
turned  their  attention  to  agriculture,  taking  water  from  the  old  mining 
ditches  and  irrigating  small  vegetable  gardens  and  orchards.  These 
people  demonstrated  the  success  of  fruit  growing  in  these  foothills,  but 
the  isolation  of  the  region  and  the  long  haul  to  railroad  points  in  early 
days  confined  the  growing  of  crops  to  a  home  supply.  While  mining- 
is  still  an  important  industry  in  the  Sierra  foothills,  the  agriculture 
that  irrigation  makes  possible  is  recognized  as  the  industry  that  will 
endure  and  give  the  region  its  permanent  character. 


328  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

CLIMATE 

The  climate  of  the  foothills  up  to  an  altitude  of  about  1500  feet  is 
quite  like  that  of  the  central  valley  of  California,  with  the  exception 
that  winter  fogs  are  of  rare  occurrence.  The  summers  are  hot  and  dry, 
with  cool  nights,  the  rainfall  occuring  from  about  the  first  of  November 
to  April.  The  winters  are  mild  and  equable.  The  rainfall  increases 
with  the  altitude  and,  in  general,  this  increase  has  been  found  to  amount 
to  from  about  0.60  to  about  0.84  inch  in  each  100  feet  elevation,  up  to 
about  6000  feet.2  Above  this,  and  up  to  about  9000  feet,  the  rate  of 
increase  is  somewhat  less. 

Between  elevations  of  about  200  and  1200  feet  above  sea  level,  this 
region  has  earned  for  itself  the  designation  ' '  Thermal  Belt. ' '  This  is 
because  the  area  in  this  belt  is  less  subject  to  frosts  than  lower  lying 
bodies  of  land  in  the  valley  floor.  This  thermal  belt  is  continuous  along 
the  foothills,  but  its  precise  boundaries  depend  upon  local  topograph- 
ical features.  Professor  Wickson  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
in  many  of  the  small  valleys  among  the  foothills,  both  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Coast  Range,  frosts  may  be  more  severe  than  on  the 
hills  adjacent  or  in  the  broader  valleys  to  which  they  are  tributary. 
It  is  known  that  cold  air  has  a  tendency  to  settle  in  low  places  while 
the  warm  air  rises  to  higher  levels.  For  this  reason  slopes  and  rounded 
hills  are  often  more  desirable  for  growing  fruit  trees  than  small  valleys 
that  may  appear  to  be  well  protected.  Oranges  are  grown  with  equal 
success  in  the  hills  east  of  Bakersfield  and  at  Oroville  300  miles  north, 
ripening  several  weeks  earlier  in  these  sections  than  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia. This  early  ripening  in  the  foothills  is  ascribed  to  the  presence 
on  the  west  of  the  Coast  Range,  which  acts  as  a  barrier  against  the  cool 
winds  from  the  ocean  and  hastens  springtime  and  summer  heat. 
Besides,  the  orchard  sections  of  the  Sierra  foothills  are  sufficiently 
distant  from  the  snows  of  the  higher  elevations  to  enable  the  cold  air 
currents  descending  from  the  mountains  to  be  warmed  before  reaching 
them. 

The  mean  monthly  and  annual  precipitation  and  temperatures  at 
different  stations  in  the  Sierra  foothills  are  given  in  the  following 
tables  compiled  from  the  records  of  the  United  States  Weather 
Bureau  :3 


2  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  Water  Supply  and  Irrig.  Paper,  No.  81. 

3  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  "Weather  Bureau  Annual  Summary,  1913. 


Bulletin  253 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


329 


P< 

5° 


P       «d       X      C 


2.    o 


f-_j      i— i      on 


hd 


w 

Pj 

5" 


5.     & 


CD     I 

2.  e 


to     i — i     i — '  i — i     i — i  ^-H^ 

tOOOCnOOM^p       £ 


tO     I— '     to  2  ? 


On      MOiMCSWOlOOa 

io     "en    os    bs    bo    bs     o    or3 


4- 

CO 

00 

OX 

o 

OS 

2  *J 

00 

h- » 

H* 

CO 

OS 

oo 

On 

oo  F- 

00 

en 

On 

oo 

On 

o 

os  £■ 

oo 

QO 

^J 

M- 

co 

OS 

oo 

to  r* 

os  onononenononosh> 
o  p  os  to  co  rf^  on  to £ 
to     on    en    to    'on    ^i    ^    co  •"i 


-<i     os    —i    os    -i    os    os    — i  tr 

en     to    ©    os    j£>    oo    oo    oo  g 
os     -i    oo    "^    hi    E-»    to    bo  n> 


oo  os  -i 
to  oo  os 
co     bo    bo 


S       00       S       <1       OO'H 

to     ©     os    on     ^  EL 
bs     to    bo    co    bo  "^ 


oo     os    -i     os     ~ci    -q    — i     oo  ►> 

I— 'OOOlCOOOrf^COtOp! 

'©  M  CO  "co  bs  to  CO  bs  T* 


-O   OS 

^  to 
'©  to  © 


on  os  oi  os  os 
en  m^  os  en  © 
-n  os  CO  rf^  co  co  co 


on  os  _ 

CO   4^  O 


^  m  ai  oi  oi  5 
oo  en  m  ©  **  c 
"h->  co  bo  co  co  < 


to  ^q 

'&■    © 


-3  CO 

bo  P 


on    os    on     en    os  a 
en    to    oo    po    hp».  j-j 

•o    bo  p 


to     ^     co 


rf^      h-J      to 

io     co    -i 


to  to  j->  to  t— »  h- ' 
to  co  "en  i->  '^  en 
^     co     to     co    os     ^i 


to   «  » 

en  4  ~ 

P-i '/> 


os    oo    on    on    oo    >-> 


en    oo    en    os    ^    ^    en 


oi  oo  ui  s  ^  a  po  m  g 
w  b  s  bo  to  to  to  bo  p 
oocotoosorfi-i— 'enr5 


co    en    o    to    co    -n     to    -i « 

osotoonoocotocor1 


en    to    oo 


-1 

oo 

^1 
^1 

en 

CO 

to 

^1 

1— ' 

"en 

CO 

bs 

io 

O 

to 

to 

h- 1 

to 

M 

M 

h- ' 

O 

s 

03 

■4- 

to 

OS 

to 

co 

to 

CO 

os 
to 

OS 

00 

en 

10 

** 

os 

co 

rf^ 

CO 

co 

h-» 

^ 

-1 

CO 

CO 

to 

00 

-q 

~3 

to 

CO 

to 

OS 

o 

as 

o 

en 

-q 

4^ 

en 

rf^ 

1— 1 

0 

en 

4- 

CO 
CO 

CO 
IO) 

to 
to 

-q 

oo 

to 

1—1 

CO 

ro 
P 

CO 

00 

en 
en 

co 
en 

h^ 

to 
oo 

co 
to 

co 

CO 

1— ' 

^> 

-1 

10 

CO 

to 

i— ' 

CO 

os 
to 

o 

en 
en 

CO 

co 

o 

10 

p 

330  UNIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


SOILS    AND    AGRICULTURE 

The  soils  of  the  Sierra  foothills  have  in  most  cases  been  formed  from 
granitic  and  metamorphic  rocks.  In  the  lower  foothills  and  in  local 
small  valleys,  minor  deposits  of  sedimentary  and  alluvial  material  have 
accumulated  but  they  are  of  minor  importance  in  this  belt.  In  the 
northern  half  of  the  belt  the  rocks  are  mainly  basic  in  character  and  in 
their  weathering  have  formed  gently  rounded  hills  and  slopes,  while 
in  the  south  half  of  the  Sierras,  the  higher  slopes  are  largely  of  granitic 
rocks  and  have  weathered  into  a  steep,  rugged  topography  permitting 
of  agriculture  only  in  the  lower  foothills.  The  soils  vary  greatly  in 
color,  depth,  texture,  and  composition  on  account  of  the  complexity  of 
geological  formations  and  climatic  influences  entering  into  their  for- 
mation. 

The  disintegration  and  weathering  of  rocks  have  proceeded  under 
climatic  conditions  ranging  from  arid  to  humid.  This  has  had  a 
marked  effect  upon  the  soils  at  different  elevations.  The  soil-forming 
processes  in  the  lower  foothills  have  gone  on  with  a  low  to  moderate 
rainfall,  while  those  in  the  higher  elevations  have  taken  place  with  an 
annual  precipitation  of  40  to  50  or  more  inches.  The  heavy  rainfall  of 
the  higher  elevations  has  clothed  the  mountains  with  a  dense  covering 
of  pine,  underbrush,  and  grass,  while  the  drier  conditions  at  lower 
altitudes  have  usually  permitted  of  only  a  sparse  growth  of  pine,  oak, 
and  grass  and  a  rather  heavy  covering  of  brush.  In  places  of  heavy 
rainfall,  moisture  has  passed  downward  in  crevices,  joints,  and  parting 
planes,  and  has  frequently  caused  a  deep  weathering  of  the  underlying 
rocks.  The  heavy  growth  of  vegetation  in  such  places  has  checked 
erosion  considerably  and  has  stimulated  the  formation  and  accumula- 
tion of  humus  in  the  soil,  thus  making  possible  the  retention  of  more 
moisture  for  the  dry  summer  months.  The  lower  humus  content  and 
sparser  vegetative  covering  of  the  lower  foothills  have  not  checked 
erosion  so  much  and  in  many  places  the  soil  has  been  moved  to  lower 
levels  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  has  accumulated. 

The  soils  over  the  entire  belt  are  relatively  high  in  iron  and  are 
prevailingly  red  in  color,  although  areas  of  gray,  brown,  and  black 
occur.  A  few  minor  areas  of  sandy  loam  occur  on  the  higher  residual 
slopes  and  marginal  areas  along  the  valley  floor.  Elsewhere,  the  pre- 
vailing textures  are  loams  and  clay  loams.  Small  isolated  areas  of 
dark  brown  to  black  adobe  occur  on  the  slopes  in  the  lower  foothills. 

About  half  of  the  area  covered  by  this  report  is  too  steep  and  rocky 
for  the  growing  of  crops.  On  the  more  gentle  slopes  and  where  the 
rocks  are  weakly  cemented  the  soil  covering  is  deeper  and  ranges  from 


Bulletin  253]  sierra  Nevada  foothills  survey  331 

1  foot  to  6  feet  or  more  in  depth.  In  many  instances  the  soil  rests  on 
upturned  rocks  which  are  creviced  and  seamed  to  considerable  depths. 
These  crevices  have  been  filled  by  the  filtering  down  of  disintegrating 
soil  material,  and  in  many  places  tree  roots  develop  downward  in  such 
cracks  20  or  more  feet.  Frequently,  where  shallow  soils  rest  upon 
upturned  rocks  or  on  partially  weathered  granite,  blasting  is  followed 
with  much  success  in  extending  the  area  for  root  development.  Where 
the  rock  occupies  a  nearly  horizontal  position  and  is  hard,  this  practice 
is  not  advisable  because  of  inadequate  drainage  in  the  bowls  where 
the  trees  are  set. 

The  soils  generally  have  a  friable,  mealy  texture  when  damp  and 
are  tilled  without  difficulty.  In  areas  of  granitic  origin  and  especially 
where  moderate  amounts  of  coarse  sand  and  gravel  are  present,  the  soils 
tend  to  pack  when  dry  and  are  rather  difficult  to  till  at  such  times. 

The  soil  is  generally  uniform  in  character  down  to  the  underlying 
bed  rock  and  no  true  subsoil  nor  hardpan  is  present  except  along  the 
margin  of  the  valley  floor.  In  granitic  areas,  where  the  rainfall  is 
moderate  to  low,  disintegration  and  water  movement  are  causing  the 
formation  of  subsoils  of  heavy  texture  at  various  depths  which  will  in 
the  course  of  time  cement  into  a  hardpan.  This  feature  becomes  more 
pronounced  as  the  base  of  the  foothills  is  approached.  A  pronounced 
indurated  hardpan  occurs  from  a  few  inches  to  several  feet  below  the 
surface  of  the  red  hog-wallow  foothill  lands  along  the  margin  of  the 
great  valley  floor.  Elsewhere  no  obstructions  occur  in  the  soil  which 
interfere  with  tillage  or  root  development. 

The  topography  and  drainage  of  the  foothills  are  not  favorable  in 
most  places  for  the  development  of  a  high  water  table  or  for  the 
accumulation  of  alkali.  In  highly  developed  areas  where  irrigation  is 
practiced  and  especially  where  water  is  sold  at  a  flat  rate,  some  injury 
from  seepage  is  occurring  in  the  small  valleys  and  on  lower  slopes.  No 
pronounced  areas  of  alkali  have  formed  in  such  places  as  yet,  but  con- 
ditions are  very  favorable  for  its  accumulation  unless  preventive 
measures  are  soon  taken.  Occasional  areas  along  the  valley  margin 
which  are  now  poorly  drained,  or  which  have  received  seepage  waters 
from  higher  eleevations  in  past  times,  are  affected  with  injurious 
amounts  of  alkali.  Practically  all  of  the  affected  areas,  however,  have 
ample  slope  for  successful  reclamation. 

The  humus  content  of  the  soils  of  the  foothills  is  relatively  low, 
but  usually  increases  with  elevation,  due  to  the  higher  rainfall  and 
increased  growth  of  vegetation. 

The  marked  variation  in  elevation,  rainfall,  temperatures,  and  soils 
makes  a  wide  range  of  profitable  crops  possible  in  this  belt.     The 


332  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

lower  altitudes  are  generally  too  hot  for  commercial  apple  production, 
but  elevations  above  1800  feet  give  fruit  of  remarkably  fine  flavor, 
color,  and  keeping  qualities.  The  sandy  loams,  loams,  and  clay  loams 
for  apples  and  pears  appear  to  give  the  best  results  in  this  belt.  Pears 
are  frequently  planted  and  do  well  on  the  lower  slopes  and  in  small 
valleys  too  wet  for  other  fruits.  The  sandy  loams  and  light  loams  of 
granitic  origin  produce  pears,  plums,  cherries,  apricots,  figs,  and  grapes 
of  high  quality,  color,  and  earliness.  Heavy  textured  soils  are  usually 
the  most  durable.  They  do  not  warm  up  rapidly  in  spring,  but  usually 
give  the  largest  yields  and  longest  lived  trees. 

Citrus  fruits,  especially  oranges,  are  grown  successfully  throughout 
the  entire  length  of  the  belt.  They  thrive  on  a  wide  range  of  soils,  but 
the  best  results  are  obtained  where  the  trees  are  planted  on  loams  and 
clay  loam  adobes  below  the  1200-foot  contour.  Little  commercial 
fertilizer  is  used  in  most  places  and  fruit  trees  have  been  maintained 
profitably  for  20  years  or  more  with  only  the  addition  of  green 
manure  crops  and  with  good  tillage  and  care.  The  long  growing  season 
and  high  summer  temperature  permit  of  a  wide  range  of  cover  crops 
which,  if  fully  utilized,  will  enable  farmers  to  secure  increased  yields 
without  much  additional  cost. 

The  influence  of  the  high  summer  heat  has  a  marked  effect  upon 
different  exposures  over  the  entire  foothill  belt.  The  soils  on  the 
northern  and  eastern  slopes  in  nearly  all  places  contain  more  humus, 
support  a  denser  vegetation,  retain  moisture  longer,  and  are  generally 
considered  more  suitable  for  fruit  culture  than  those  with  a  western 
or  southern  exposure. 

The  abundance  and  thrift  of  native  vegetation  over  the  entire  belt 
is  a  fair  indication  of  the  depth,  fertility,  and  moisture-retaining  pro- 
perties of  the  soil. 


WATER  SUPPLY 

The  streams  having  their  source  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  which 
flow  into  the  San  Joaquin  and  Sacramento  Rivers,  constitute  the  avail- 
able water  supply  for  the  lower  foothills,  as  well  as  for  the  valley  floor. 
Where  the  present  surface  supply  is  utilized  in  the  valleys,  storage 
will  be  necessary  for  the  fullest  development  of  the  foothills.  Under- 
ground waters  are  being  utilized  in  some  sections  and  constitute  an 
important  factor  in  irrigation  development.  The  divides  between  the 
basins  of  the  individual  rivers  are  rough  and  irregular  in  outline  and 
may  be  likened  in  shape  to  a  fan,  the  broad  part  being  along  or  near  the 


Bulletin  253]  sierra  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  333 

crest  of  the  mountains,  and  the  apex  at  the  point  where  the  channel 
meets  the  valley.  Between  these  main  streams  smaller  creeks  take  the 
run-off  of  the  lower  ranges  and  foothills;  their  flow  is  torrential  and 
intermittent  during  the  rainy  season,  and  after  reaching  the  plains 
their  waters  spread  out  and  are  eventually  lost  in  the  sandy  soil. 

The  principal  rivers  furnishing  water  for  irrigation  from  south 
to  north  are  as  follows  :4 

Above  San  Joaquin  Valley :  Kern,  Tule,  Kaweah,  Kings,  San  Joa- 
quin, Merced,  Tuolumne,  Stanislaus,  Calaveras,  Mokelumne,  and  Cos- 
umnes  Rivers. 

Above  Sacramento  Valley:  American,  Bear,  Yuba,  Feather,  and 
Sacramento  Rivers. 

THE  USE  OF  SMALL  WATER  SUPPLIES 
Throughout  the  Sierra  foothills  there  are  numerous  springs  which 
may  be  made  to  yield  a  large  revenue  if  the  flow  from  them  is  stored 
in  small  reservoirs.  The  majority  of  springs  may  be  too  small  to  use 
the  flow  continuously,  but  when  it  is  allowed  to  accumulate  for  a  few 
days  or  a  week  in  a  reservoir  it  is  capable  of  irrigating  a  considerable 
area.  It  might  be  considered  a  waste  of  time  and  water  to  supply  a 
flow  of  one  miner's  inch  directly  to  the  soil,  yet  such  a  flow  with 
proper  storage  might  serve  several  acres  of  highly  valuable  land.  One 
irrigator  in  Eldorado  County  irrigated  successfully  2  acres  from  a 
small  spring  having  a  flow  of  only  about  1  inch.  The  discharge  of  the 
spring  was  stored  in  an  earthen  reservoir  100  feet  long,  60  feet  wide, 
and  3%  feet  deep,  holding  about  one  half  of  an  acre-foot  of  water. 
This  small  flow  produced  in  one  season  fruits  and  vegetables  having  a 
value  of  $400.  This  illustrates  how  a  small  spring  may  be  utilized  to 
good  advantage.  Usually  all  of  the  work  connected  with  building  such 
a  reservoir  can  be  done  by  the  farmer  and  the  only  outlay  is  for  material 
which  is  small. 

Small  reservoirs  may  likewise  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  storing 
the  storm  waters  of  small  creeks  or  torrential  streams  which  flow 
during  the  winter  months  and  have  dry  beds  during  the  summer. 
There  are  numerous  small  reservoir  sites  throughout  the  Sierra  foot- 
hill belt  that  can  be  made  to  serve  hundreds  of  acres  if  development 
is  undertaken.  California  is  far  behind  some  of  the  other  western 
states  in  building  storage  works  for  impounding  irrigation  waters.5 


*  For  full  data  on  water  supply  see  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey  Water  Supply  Papers 
Nos.  295,  296,  298,  and  299;  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta.  Bulls.  207,  237, 
239,  and  254. 

5  See  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  of  Expt.  Sta.  Bulls.  134  and  179.  For  addi- 
tional data  on  the  construction  of  dams  see  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta. 
Bull.   249. 


334 


UNIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Colorado  has  added  thousands  of  dollars  to  its  wealth  through  the 
co-operation  of  farmers  in  constructing  small  reservoirs.  Opportuni- 
ties for  such  development  are  equally  favorable  in  many  parts  of  the 
Sierra  foothills.  The  use  of  small  reservoirs  in  connection  with  pump- 
ing plants  is  recommended,  particularly  in  portions  of  the  Tulare- 
Fresno  citrus  belt,  where  water  is  lifted  about  150  feet  and  where 
the  stream  produced  is  too  small  for  an  economical  irrigating  head. 


TULARE  AND  FRESNO   COUNTIES  CITRUS  BELT 

The  chief  citrus  producing  district  north  of  the  Tehachapi  Moun- 
tains is  found  in  the  foothill  area  of  Tulare  County,  of  which  Porter- 
ville,  Lindsay,  and  Exeter  are  the  principal  towns.  Other  settlements 
are  Ducor,  Terra  Bella,  Strathmore,  Lemoncove,  Globe,  Naranjo,  and 
Woodlake.  There  are  now  about  40,000  acres  of  citrus  trees  under 
cultivation  in  this  section,  about  one-quarter  of  which  are  in  bearing. 
The  shipments  of  oranges  and  lemons  from  this  section  are  rapidly 
increasing  and  now  amount  to  about  6000  cars  annually. 


Fig.  1. — Irrigated  lands  near  Lemoncove,  Tulare  County 

The  Tulare  and  Fresno  counties  citrus  belt  extends  northward 
through  Fresno  County,  the  principal  orange  development  in  this 
county  being  around  Mount  Campbell  and  Clarks  Valley,  and  includes 
plantings  north  and  east  of  Sanger.  The  area  devoted  to  citrus  fruits 
in  Fresno  County  is  about  2000  acres. 


Bulletin  253 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


335 


The  hills  bordering  this  part  of  the  San  Joaquin  Valley  rise 
rather  abruptly  and  culminate  in  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  citrus 
development  occurs  principally  along  the  lower  slopes  and  in  several 
small  valleys  and  coves  back  of  the  first  range  of  hills;  it  is  also 
rapidly  spreading  westward  over  the  plains. 

The  climate  of  this  section  is  arid  and  subtropical.  The  summers 
are  hot  and  dry  but  the  nights  are  usually  comfortable.  The  mean 
monthly  temperature  and  precipitation  at  Porterville  is  shown  in  fig- 
ure 3.  The  average  rainfall  at  Porterville  for  twenty-five  years  is 
10.02  inches. 


Fig.  2. — Irrigated  citrus  orchard  on  steep  hillsides  near  Exeter,  Tulare  County 


SOILS 

The  soils  of  this  belt  consist  of  material  derived  from  the  weathering 
of  a  wide  range  of  rocks.  Those  on  the  steeper  hills  and  slopes  are 
mainly  residual  from  underlying  metamorphic  and  granitic  rocks  and 
contain  some  material  from  collnvial  sources.  They  range  in  texture 
from  loams  to  clay  loam  adobes  and  are  brown  to  chocolate  brown  or 
nearly  black  in  color. 

The  residual  loams  are  usually  brown  and  vary  in  depth  from 
1  to  6  or  more  feet.  The  soils  are  friable  throughout  the  entire  depth 
and  are  easily  tilled.  Humus  and  lime  are  present  in  moderate  quanti- 
ties and  the  surface  is  smooth  and  easily  prepared  for  irrigation. 


336 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


a    3 


•p,    2 


The  clay  loam  is  somewhat  darker  in  color  than  the  loam,  but 
resembles  it  in  other  features  except  tillage.  It  is  moderately  well- 
supplied  with  humus  and  lime,  is  retentive  of  moisture,  but  is  difficult 
to  till  on  account  of  its  heavy  texture. 

The  residual  clay  loam  adobe  is  chocolate  brown  to  black  and 
ranges  in  depth  from  6  inches  to  6  or  more  feet.  The  average  depth 
is  about  2  to  3%  feet.  It  has  a  granular  structure  when  dry  but  is 
heavy  and  waxy  when  wet.  The  humus  content  is  relatively  high. 
In  places  the  parent  rock  disintegrates  into  a  white  mass  which  has 


Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

M 

a  j 

June 

Julj 

A 

ig 

Sep 

. 

Oct 

N 

IV 

Dec 

'.; 

\. 

'■'■ 

;/ 

'.'•'. 

■:': 

;'• 

?■ 

'■;.-. 

'•'{■ 

ii 

s 

•': 

•  V 

■ 

1 

:: 

*'.' 

•*«' 

1 

1 

1 

% 

:V 

■    < 

>r 

ecipit? 

iti 

m 

0 

Tem 

pe 

ra 

ture 

SO 


Fig.  3. — Mean  monthly  temperature  and  precipitation  at  Porterville,  ] 889-1 91 3 


been  found  to  be  prejudicial  to  the  health  of  the  trees.  When  well 
cultivated  the  type  is  retentive  of  moisture  and  appears  to  break  down 
into  a  marly  heap  when  exposed  to  oxidation.  This  type  occupies  a 
position  above  the  alluvial  adobes  and  is  much  more  expensive  to 
irrigate  on  account  of  its  elevation.  It  occupies  the  steeper  residual 
slopes  and  ridges  in  many  of  the  coves  and  along  many  of  the  small 
foothill  valleys.  The  residual  soils  are  all  well-drained  and  free  from 
alkali  except  in  a  few  local  areas  in  small  coves  and  valleys  where 
intercepted  drainage  has  caused  alkali  to  accumulate. 

Erosive  agencies  and  moving  water  acting  upon  the  rocks  in  the 
foothills  have  given  rise  to  an  irregular  belt  of  adobe  soils  which  follow 


BULLETIN  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  337 

along  the  lower  foothills  from  the  region  east  of  Delano  northward 
to  the  head  of  Clarks  Valley,  a  distance  of  about  75  miles.  A  narrow 
border  of  this  material  also  occurs  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mount  Camp- 
bell and  other  ridges  and  hills  to  the  north.  These  adobe  soils  generally 
occupy  slopes  varying  considerably  in  steepness  and  are  well-drained 
and  free  from  alkali,  except  in  local  depressions  and  small  valleys. 
They  are  high  in  humus  and  lime  and  rank  among  the  most  fertile 
soils  in  this  region.  They  are  mainly  alluvial  in  character,  are  usually 
free  from  hardpan,  and  their  naturally  smooth  surface  requires  very 
little  leveling  for  citrus  culture  and  irrigation.  They  are  dark  brown 
to  nearly  black  in  color  and  were  recognized  as  belonging  to  the  Por- 
terville  series  of  soils  as  mapped  in  that  area  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils.6 

South  of  Porterville  and  east  of  Strathmore,  adobe  soils  project  into 
the  valley  as  a  series  of  ridges  and  slopes,  somewhat  higher  than  the 
surrounding  country.  The  lower  slopes  are  less  steep  as  they  approach 
the  valley  soils.  Small  quantities  of  sub-angular  rock  fragments  and 
gravel  are  present  locally,  but  they  seldom  interfere  seriously  with 
tillage  and  cultivation.  The  subsoil  is  usually  a  compact  heavy  clay, 
somewhat  lighter  in  color  than  the  surface  and  in  places  is  very  high 
in  lime,  making  it  almost  white.  This  marly  stratum  is  somtimes  semi- 
cemented  and  resembles  a  hardpan,  but  generally  the  subsoil  is  free 
from  unfavorable  obstructions  to  root  development.  When  dry  the 
soil  cracks  badly  and  in  places  of  unusually  high  lime  content  puffs 
or  heaves  when  drying,  forming  a  soft  mealy  area  locally  known  as 
"dry  bog."  Whenever  these  soils  have  a  gray  limy  subsoil  layer  at 
less  than  5  feet  they  are  considered  of  little  value  for  citriculture  on 
account  of  chlorosis.  Tillage  is  usually  a  difficult  operation  on  these 
soils,  but  when  large  amounts  of  organic  matter  are  turned  under  and 
plowing  is  done  at  the  proper  time,  the  soil  works  into  a  well- 
granulated  mealy  condition. 

The  adobe  soils  were  the  first  selected  for  citriculture  because  of 
their  favorable  location  for  frost  protection,  and  are  now  the  most 
highly  developed  in  this  belt.  The  higher  and  best  protected  slopes 
are  used  very  successfully  for  lemon  and  pomelo  growing. 

Joining  the  adobe  soils  on  their  lower  margin,  and  extending  far 
out  into  the  valley,  is  an  extensive  body  of  red  to  reddish  brown  loam 
and  sandy  loam.  This  belt  of  soils  is  underlain  by  a  red  indurated 
hardpan  at  depths  of  6  inches  to  4  feet  and  has  a  hog-wallow  surface. 
The  hardpan  ranges  from  a  few  inches  to  2  feet  through.  Beneath 
the  hardpan  the  soil  resembles  the  surface  material  and  is  well  suited 
to  root  development.     Where  the  hardpan  is  less  than  4  feet  beneath 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau  of  Soils,  Soil  Survey  of  Portersville  Area,  California. 


338  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

the  surface,  blasting  is  advisable  for  the  best  success  with  tree  fruits. 

The  general  surface  of  this  body  of  soil  is  a  gently-sloping  plain, 
but  is  somewhat  dissected  at  intervals  by  small  stream  valleys  giving 
it  an  uneven  ridgy  appearance  in  such  places.  It  is  usually  well- 
drained,  but  in  small  level  or  slightly  depressed  areas  numerous  bare 
spots  indicate  the  presence  of  alkali.  Elsewhere  no  alkali  is  found. 
This  group  of  soils  is  fertile  and  responds  with  heavy  yields  where 
well  handled.  It  is  not  quite  so  well  protected  from  freezes  as  the 
higher  lying  adobe,  but  injury  from  this  source  seldom  occurs  and 
excellent  success  is  being  obtained  with  citrus  fruits  on  it  some  dis- 
tance west  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad.  These  soils  are  easily 
tilled  and  water  for  irrigation  is  obtained  at  shallower  depths  than  on 
the  soils  nearer  the  foothills.  The  humus  and  lime  content  are  much 
lower  than  in  the  adobe  soils,  but  the  lighter  texture  of  this  soil  causes 
it  to  warm  sooner  in  spring  and  gives  it  a  wide  range  of  beneficial 
cover  crops.  The  acreage  of  this  group  of  soils  is  perhaps  two  or  more 
times  greater  than  that  covered  by  the  adobe  types. 

Small  alluvial  valleys  occur  along  Tule,  Kaweah,  and  Kings  rivers 
and  along  the  larger  creeks.  These  valleys  are  quite  narrow  where  the 
streams  emerge  from  the  mountains  but  soon  widen  out  into  broad 
alluvial  fans  on  entering  the  San  Joaquin  Valley.  The  soils  in  these 
stream  bottoms  are  brown  to  grayish  brown  micaceous  fine  sandy  loams 
and  silt  loams  for  6  or  more  feet  in  depth.  They  are  subject  to  overflow 
in  places,  but  this  can  be  avoided  by  levees.  They  are  easily  tilled  and 
highly  productive.  Water  is  available  at  15  to  35  feet  below  the  sur- 
face and  in  a  few  low  areas  of  restricted  drainage  the  ground  water 
is  so  near  the  surface  that  alkali  has  accumulated  in  injurious  quanti- 
ties. Small,  highly-successful  plantings  of  oranges  are  found  on  the 
Kings  River  bottoms  about  10  to  12  miles  northeast  of  Centerville, 
where  the  gradient  of  the  river  bed  is  sufficiently  great  to  prevent 
damage  from  frost.  Elsewhere  these  soils  are  too  low  for  citrus  culture 
but  respond  with  high  yields  of  peaches,  plums,  pears,  figs,  bush  and 
vine  fruits,  truck,  grain,  and  alfalfa.  Before  tillage  these  soils  usually 
support  a  moderate  growth  of  cottonwood,  willows,  and  vines.  The 
soils  are  retentive  of  moisture  and  contain  no  obstructions  to  deep  root 
development. 

On  all  soils  of  this  belt  care  is  exercised  to  avoid  alkali-affected 
areas  and  low  places  where  drainage  is  not  good  for  fruit  culture. 
Besides  being  more  subject  to  freezes,  the  soils  in  such  places  art1 
saturated  with  water  for  one  or  more  months  of  the  year  during  rainy 
periods,  and  such  a  condition  is  not  conducive  to  the  best  welfare  of  the 
more  sensitive  citrus  and  deciduous  fruits.     The  groves  are  generally 


BULLETIN  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  339 

plowed  once  each  year  to  turn  under  manure  or  cover  crops  and  to 
aerate  the  soil.  This  plowing  is  followed  by  cultivation  at  frequent 
intervals  through  the  spring,  summer,  and  fall  months  to  conserve 
moisture  and  check  weed  growth.  On  the  heaviest  phases  of  the 
adobe  soils  plowing  is  sometimes  not  practiced  and  the  soil  is  kept 
stirred  by  discs  and  spring-tooth  harrows.  Where  this  practice  is 
followed,  one  good  man  and  four  mules  can  handle  about  80  acres 
except  for  the  help  of  an  additional  outfit  for  about  one  month  or  six 
weeks  during  summer.  Clean  culture  is  the  rule  during  summer,  and 
cover  crops,  such  as  vetch,  oats,  rye,  barley,  and  field  peas,  are  exten- 
sively planted  in  the  fall  to  supply  the  much  needed  organic  matter. 
Considerable  commercial  fertilizer  high  in  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid  is  used,  the  amount  generally  increasing  with  the  age  and  bearing 
of  the  trees.  Navels  are  the  principle  oranges  grown,  but  at  present 
considerable  areas  are  being  set  out  to  Valencias. 

While  the  Tulare-Fresno  Counties  foothill  belt  is  principally  de- 
voted to  the  growing  of  citrus  fruits,  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
are,  as  already  indicated,  favorable  for  the  growing  of  a  wide  range 
of  crops.  Olives  and  figs  are  often  planted  to  form  borders  or  wind- 
breaks for  citrus  orchards.  Alfalfa  is  extensively  grown  at  the  foot 
of  the  slopes.  The  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  parallels  this  belt  from 
north  to  south  and  several  small  branch  lines,  besides  an  electric 
road,  serve  as  outlets  for  small  valleys  located  farther  back  in  the 
foothills.  These,  with  additional  branch  lines  now  under  construction, 
place  nearly  all  points  in  this  belt,  capable  of  development,  within 
reasonable  distance  of  a  shipping  point. 


IRRIGATION 

Water  for  irrigation  is  obtained  both  from  gravity  canals  and  by 
pumping  from  wells.  Tule  and  Kaweah  Rivers  are  the  principal 
sources  of  gravity  supply.  The  average  monthly  flow  of  Tule  River  at 
Porterville  is  246  cubic  feet  per  second,  the  greatest  flow  occurring 
from  March  to  June,  inclusive.  There  are  86  ditches  and  canals 
diverting  water  from  Tule  River,  most  of  which  irrigate  valley  lands 
below  Porterville.  The  principal  diversions  from  this  river  irrigating 
citrus  lands  are  Pioneer  Canal,  South  Tule  Independent  Ditch,  Pleasant 
Valley  Ditch,  Mount  Whitney  Ditch,  and  Campbell  and  Moreland 
Ditch.  The  cost  of  water  from  these  ditches  varies  from  $2.50  to  $8 
per  acre  per  season.  Bonnie  Brae  and  Lemoncove  Ditches  are  the  only 
ditches  of  importance  irrigating  citrus  lands  from  the  Kaweah  River. 


340 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


Utilization  of  underground  waters  for  irrigation  is  important  in 
this  section.  The  average  lift  varies  from  80  to  200  feet  and  in  some 
cases  water  is  raised  more  than  400  feet.  These  high  lifts  are  not  due  to 
the  depth  of  water  below  the  land  surface,  but  to  raising  the  water  to 
elevations  on  the  hillsides.  Most  of  the  wells  now  drilled  around 
Porterville  are  12  inches  in  diameter  and  vary  in  depth  from  80  to 
350  feet.  The  cost  of  boring  is  $1.50  per  foot  for  the  first  100  feet 
in  depth,  and  50  cents  per  foot  extra  for  each  additional  foot.  The 
cost  of  casing  is  about  $1.17  per  foot. 

Centrifugal  pumps  are  used  in  this  section  for  heads  up  to  80  to 
100  feet.     Where  the  lift  exceeds  this  and  wells  do  not  produce  over 


Fig.  4. — Typical  irrigation  pumping  plant  near  Lindsay,  Tulare  County 


30  or  40  miner's  inches  of  water,  deep-well  pumps  are  used.  Electric 
motors  are  more  generally  employed  than  gas-engines,  the  power  gen- 
erally costing  $50  per  horsepower  per  annum.  Various  forms  of  con- 
tracts are  made  by  the  power  companies  according  to  the  size  of  the 
plant  and  conditions  involved. 

The  pumping  installations  about  Porterville,  Lindsay,  and  Exeter 
are  similar  to  those  in  southern  California,  descriptions  of  which  are 
given  in  a  bulletin  of  the  Office  of  the  Experiment  Stations.7  A  typical 
plant  in  the  Piano  district  near  Porterville,  where  the  lift  is  150  feet, 
consists  of  a  20-horsepower  motor  and  a  double-acting  plunger  pump 


U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  2' 


Bulletin  253] 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


341 


having  an  8-inch  cylinder  and  discharging  270  gallons  per  minute. 
The  well  is  12  inches  in  diameter  and  300  feet  deep.  This  plant  cost 
$2400  and  it  serves  40  acres  of  oranges. 

The  cost  of  preparing  land  for  irrigation  ranges  from  $10  to  $40 

per  acre.    The  higher  cost  is  for  the  uneven  rolling  land,  locally  called 

hog- wallow, ' '  found  at  the  foot  of  the  slopes.    The  land  is  plowed  as 


■^.rtv.: 

4#    ■* 

1-5,                  ,  am 
-  * 

-"^  w  ■"». 

%'l     K? 

i 

v  '   f  '>,    .  '  .  '/■"     y-'  :t%*-'   #^ 

&Z' '  • 

Sfe:% 

»??""'"     '* 

;m  .. 

\"*\f,  •**■■"'     *     ,«&*    s 

^ 
&? 

- 

',:,.    1 

_, 

■■  ■""■'  •                            .:  - 

%^      " 

■;;- ■'■'■''■  \  ,',/>;;'"'           "r':-';"-  ."'..'      ■■  :■■.::.:"""''"  ■':':- J 

, 

V 

y%m%*m»  ■  ~: 

Fig.  5. — Delivery  of  water  from  concrete  standpipes 


Fig.  6. — Concrete  head-flume  in  hillside  orchard  near  Porterville,  Tulare  County 


342 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 


deeply  as  possible  with  a  heavy  breaking  plow  and  then  levelled  with  a 
Fresno  scraper  and  wooden  drag  or  leveler.  Where  hardpan  occurs 
holes  are  usually  blasted  before  trees  are  planted. 

The  methods  of  applying  water  and  the  appliances  for  controlling 
water  are  similar  to  those  in  vogue  in  southern  California.  Concrete 
pipe  is  extensively  used  for  ordinary  slopes,  but  where  water  is  carried 
over  hills  and  subjected  to  pressure  iron  pipe  is  substituted.  Concrete 
flumes  following  the  contours  of  the  hillsides  are  generally  used  in 
carrying  the  main  supply.  The  cost,  laid,  of  concrete  pipe  at  Porter- 
ville  is  given  as  follows : 


>iameter, 
inches 

Cost  per  foot, 
cents 

6 

21 

8 

23 

10 

27 

12 

33 

14 

40 

The  cost  of  valves  placed  in  head  stands  at  the  head  of  each  row  of 
trees  is  $2  each. 


Fig.  7. — Curved  furrows  in  Tulare  County  citrus  orchard 

The  furrow  method  is  used  exclusively  in  the  irrigation  of  orchards. 
In  young  orchards  from  2  to  4  furrows  3  to  4  inches  deep  are  run  be- 
tween the  rows  of  trees.  In  bearing  groves  the  furrows  are  made  10 
to  12  inches  deep,  thus  enabling  the  moisture  to  penetrate  more  deeply 
into  the  soil  and  insuring  a  deeper  root  system  for  the  trees.  To  reduce 
the  grade  and  lessen  the  washing  of  the  soil,  various  schemes  of  furrow- 


Bulletin  253 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


343 


ing  are  employed.  A  common  method  is  to  curve  the  furrows,  thus 
checking*  the  flow  of  water,  as  shown  in  figure  7.  On  the  Merryman 
ranch,  at  Exeter,  a  steep  hillside  is  irrigated  by  means  of  4  furrows 
between  the  rows  of  trees  run  down  the  face  of  the  slope.  The  furrows 
next  to  the  rows  of  trees  are  curved  or  zigzagged  as  shown  in  figure  8. 
The  slope  is  so  steep  that  only  a  stream  the  size  of  a  lead  pencil  can 
be  safely  turned  into  each  furrow.  Around  Lindsay,  cross  furrows 
are  much  used  to  give  a  more  equal  distribution  of  water  over  the 
surface  than  is  possible  with  straight  furrows,  as  is  illustrated  in  fig- 
ure 9.  Furrows  are  made  parallel  to  the  head  line  and  then  crossed 
at  right  angles  by  furrows  running  down  the  steepest  slope.  The 
work  of  making  the  necessary  cuts  and  fills  is  done  by  hand  or  with 
a  jump  scraper. 

The  streams  of  water  or  heads  used  in  irrigating  orchards  are  from 
20  to  60  miner's  inches  in  size.  The  size  of  the  stream  allowed  to  run 
in  each  furrow  and  the  length  of  the  furrow  vary  with  the  slope  and 
character  of  the  soil.  On  steep  land,  one  miner's  inch  is  divided  into 
4  or  5  parts  which  are  allowed  to  trickle  down  the  slope.  On  moderate 
Main  Distributing   Line      ^^^§^nd 


Fig.  8. — Diagram  showing  combination  of  straight  and  curved  furrows 
near  Exeter,  Tulare  County 


344 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT  STATION 


slopes  the  furrows  are  made  400  to  600  feet  long  and  the  head  increased 
to  one-half  miner's  inch  for  each  furrow.  The  irrigation  season  extends 
from  April  to  November.  Water  is  applied  every  4  to  6  weeks,  depend- 
ing upon  the  season.  After  each  irrigation  the  orchards  are  thoroughly 
cultivated  to  retain  the  moisture.  The  cost  of  irrigating  citrus  fruits 
by  pumping  is  higher  than  from  gravity  ditches.  Where  water  is 
raised  150  feet,  the  cost  of  pumping  will  be  in  the  neighborhood  of  $15 
per  acre  per  season. 

Studies  of  the  duty  of  water  in  the  Tule  Eiver  Basin  were  made  in 
1901  and  reported  in  Office  of  Experiment  Stations  Bulletin  No.  119. 8 
The  averages  of  a  large  number  of  measurements  show  that  the  depth 
of  irrigation  for  citrus  trees  varied  from  1  to  2  feet.  A  depth  of  1.5 
feet  for  full  bearing  trees  on  adobe  or  loam  soil  seems  a  sufficient 
allowance  where  the  rainfall  is  10  inches,  although  the  best  amount  to 
apply  of  course  varies  with  different  orchards.  It  is  the  opinion  of 
successful  growers  in  this  belt  that  less  water  is  required  to  irrigate 
the  adobe  slopes  than  the  more  level  red  hog-wallow  valley  soils. 


^Delivery  Gate 


{Stand 


Fig.  9. — Diagram  of  zigzag  furrows  in  a  Lindsay  (Tulare  County)  orange 

orchard 

«U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  119,  pp.  159-189. 


Bulletin  253 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


345 


346 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 


PLACER  COUNTY  DECIDUOUS  FRUIT  BELT 

Placer  County  is  nearly  in  a  line  west  of  the  State  of  Delaware. 
It  extends  from  the  Nevada  line  southwestward  well  out  into  the 
Sacramento  Valley  and  has  a  topography  varying  from  level  plains 
40  feet  above  sea-level  to  very  rugged,  broken,  and  dissected  rocky 
areas  from  Colfax  eastward.  Its  extreme  elevation  is  about  7000  feet. 
The  main  development  in  the  foothill  section  of  the  county  is  around 
Auburn,  Newcastle,  Penryn,  Loomis,  and  Rocklin.  The  area  is  utilized 
principally  for  the  growing  of  deciduous  fruits,  and  it  ships  to  outside 
markets  about  one-quarter  to  one-third  of  the  total  output  of  fresh 
fruit  of  the  state.  Peaches,  plums,  and  grapes  are  the  main  fruits 
grown,  with  moderate  plantings  of  pears,  figs,  olives,  apricots,  cherries, 
and  persimmons. 


Fig.  11. — Lower  Sierra  foothill  orchard  near   Loomis,  Placer  County 

The  wide  variations  in  topography,  climate,  and  soils  of  this  belt 
have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  kinds  of  fruit  best  suited  to  the 
region.  Auburn,  with  an  elevation  of  1360  feet,  marks  the  upper 
boundary  of  orange  culture  and  the  lower  limit  of  commercial  apple 
growing.  Deciduous  fruits,  except  pears  and  apples,  decrease  in 
commercial  importance  east  of  Colfax,  which  has  an  elevation  of 
about  2400  feet.  From  this  point  up  to  about  3000  feet  apples  and 
Bartlett  pears  reach  a  high  state  of  perfection. 

Like  other  sections  of  the  foothills  this  district  has  but  two  seasons, 
the  rainy  and  the  dry.    The  average  rainfall  during  the  months  of  June, 


Bulletin  253] 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


347 


July,  August,  and  September  amounts  to  only  one  inch.  The  moisture 
absorbed  by  the  soil  from  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  to  start  an  active 
growth,  but  irrigation  is  usually  necesssar^y  for  the  maturing  of  the 
fruit  crop.  The  mean  monthly  rainfall  at  Auburn  is  shown  in  figure 
12,  which  illustrates  the  dry  season  from  May  to  October,  when  irriga- 
tion is  practiced.    The  average  yearly  rainfall  is  35.13  inches. 

SOILS 

The  soils  around  Rocklin,  Loomis,  Penryn,  and  Newcastle  are  light, 
reddish  sandy  loams  and  loams  derived  principally  from  underlying 
granodiorite,  and  influenced  in  local  places  by  andesitic  tuff,  which 
imparts  a  high  iron  content  and  a  redder  color  to  them. 

The  sandy  loam  here  ranges  in  depth  from  1  foot  to  6  or  more  feet. 
It  is  usually  of  uniform  texture  to  the  underlying  bedrock,  which  is 


Jan.    Feb.   Mar.   Apr. 

May  June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct.   Nov.   Dec. 

1 

1 

■ 

1 

1 

1 

■ 

I 

I 

Fig.  12. — Mean  monthly  rainfall  at  Auburn, 
1872-1913 


often  partially  weathered  many  feet  deep.  A  tendency  exists  in  this 
type  for  the  finer  soil  particles  to  filter  downward  causing  a  layer  of 
red  sandy  clay  from  6  inches  to  1  or  more  feet  thick  to  form  at  1  foot 
to  4  feet  below  the  surface.  This  layer  is  beneficial  in  checking  the 
downward  movement  of  water,  which  is  usually  excessive  in  this  soil. 
The  type  occupies  a  rounded,  hilly  topography,  with  moderate  to  gentle 
slopes  favorable  for  irrigation.  The  type  is  low  in  humus,  but  responds 
quickly  to  organic  matter  and  good  care. 

The  loams  here  are  light  grayish-brown  to  gray  in  color  and  range 
from  one  foot  to  6  or  more  feet  deep.  They  are  easily  tilled  and  need 
organic  matter  for  the  best  returns.  These  soils  usually  occupy  a  lower 
position  than  the  sandy  loams  and  are  more  gently-rolling.    Much  of 


348 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


the  material  consists  of  fine  particles  washed  from  the  higher-lying- 
sandy  loams.  They  retain  moisture  somewhat  better  than  the  lighter 
types. 

The  soils  above  described  are  easily  tilled  and  the  rolling  topography 
gives  them  good  drainage.  The  excessive  use  of  irrigation  water, 
however,  has  frequently  caused  a  water-logged  condition  in  the  bottoms 
of  the  small  valleys  which  in  time  may  develop  alkali  unless  preven- 
tive measures  are  adopted.  Rock  outcrop  is  not  uncommon  but  the  soil 
is  generally  of  sufficient  depth  for  successful  fruit  culture.  The  soils 
are  not  quite  so  enduring  as  those  around  Auburn  but  they  warm  up 
more  quickly  and  mature  fruit  from  1  to  2  weeks  earlier  than  in  the 
latter  section. 


Fig.  13. — Irrigated  orchard  near  Rocklin,  Placer  County 


manure.  Some  cover  crops  are  grown.  The  prevailing  practice  is 
against  summer  cultivation,  and  some  successful  growers  hold  strongly 
to  the  opinion  that  clean  cultivation  is  injurious.  For  15  years  one 
large  grower  has  practiced  biennial  cultivation,  plowing  only  one-half 
of  his  orchard  each  year  while  burr  clover  and  other  native  plants  and 
Little  cultivation  is  done  in  the  orchards  during  the  summer  months 
and  the  weeds  and  grass  which  spring  up  are  plowed  under  for  green 
weeds  are  allowed  to  grow  and  seed  undisturbed  for  a  full  year,  both 
mature  growth  of  later  spring  and  summer  and  the  green  growth  of 
the  following  winter  being  turned  under  in  March  and  April.  Growers 
generally  justify  the  practice  of  no  summer  cultivation  on  the  grounds 
that  the  frequent  irrigations — these  are   given   every   10  days  or  2 


Bulletin  253] 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


349 


weeks  from  May  to  September — make  moisture  conservation  by  culti- 
vation unnecessary,  that  the  weed  growth  increases  moisture  absorb- 
tion  and  decreases  soil  erosion  from  the  winter  rains,  that  winter 
growing  of  manuring  crops  to  take  the  place  of  the  summer  growth  of 
native  grasses  has  not  yet  been  found  feasible,  and  that  the  expense  of 
frequent  summer  cultivations  and  the  constant  re-making  of  the 
irrigation  furrows  would  not  be  justified  even  if  desirable.  In  the 
lower  sections  of  the  belt,  as  about  Penryn  and  Loomis,  vetches  have 
been  more  successfully  grown  in  winter  than  about  Auburn  and  New- 
castle and,  as  a  consequence,  summer  cultivation  is  more  general. 

The  soils  around  Auburn  consist  mainly  of  deep  red  loams  and 
clay  loams,  derived  principally  from  amphibolite.     They  are  known 


Fig.  14.— Slate  soil  near  Auburn,  Placer  County,  showing  depth  and  character 

to  be  highly  productive  and  very  enduring.  What  is  lost  in  earliness 
on  these  soils  is  made  up  by  increased  yields.  The  rocks  giving  rise 
to  these  soils  occupy  a  nearly  vertical  position  and  their  manner  of 
disintegration  gives  rise  to  a  series  of  ridges  and  hills,  while  the  gran- 
odiorite  weathers  into  a  more  subdued  topography  and  gives  rise  to 
an  extensive  series  of  more  gently  sloping  rounded  hills.  The  same 
methods  of  farm  management  are  followed  on  these  soils  as  prevail 
in  the  Newcastle-Penryn  belt. 

The  loams  about  Auburn  average  about  3  to  Sy2  feet  deep  but  fre- 
quently extend  to  depths  below  6  feet.  They  are  red  in  color,  friable, 
are  relatively  low  in  humus,  and  are  easily  tilled.  The  topography  is 
favorable  for  fruit  growing  and  few  rock  outcrops  occur  except  in 


350  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

places  too  steep  for  agriculture.  The  soils  are  relatively  high  in  iron 
and  retain  moisture  well.  Peaches,  pears,  grapes,  figs,  olives,  cherries, 
and  plums  are  the  leading  fruits. 

The  clay  loam  about  Auburn  is  uniform  in  texture  from  2  to  6  or 
more  feet  deep  and  is  of  a  deep  red  color.  It  is  a  durable  soil  but  is 
somewhat  difficult  to  till  on  account  of  its  heavy  texture.  It  is  well- 
granulated,  however,  and  retains  moisture  well.  The  soil  rests  on  bed- 
rock and  occupies  a  topography  similar  to  the  loam.  The  clay  loam 
is  well  adapted  to  a  wide  range  .of  fruits,  chief  among  which  from 
Auburn  eastward  are  apples  and  pears. 


Fig.  15. — Typical  rolling  foothills  near  Colfax,  Placer  County 

The  loams  and  clay  loams  around  Newcastle  are  well-drained  find 
free  from  alkali.  Surface  feature's  are  favorable  for  fruit  culture  and 
irrigation  without  leveling,  but  the  clearing  of  brush  from  virgin  land 
is  necessary  in  most  places  before  crops  can  be  grown.  Some  gravel 
is  present  locally  but  does  not  seriously  interfere  with  tillage. 

Beginning  about  4  miles  northeast  of  Auburn,  the  soils  suitable 
for  fruit  growing  narrow  down  to  a  belt  VL,  mile  to  2  miles  wide,  paral- 
leling the  railway  to  Colfax.  Outside  of  this  narrow  strip  the  region 
is  rough  and  suited  only  to  grazing,  mining  and  lumber  production. 
The  soils  are  reddish  loams  and  clay  loams  from  1  foot  to  (i  feet  deep 
and  are  derived  mainly  from  slates  and  diabase.  They  are  highly  pro- 
ductive soils  and  yield  pears  and  apples  of  excellent  quality.     Plums. 


Bulletin  253] 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


351 


peaches,  and  other  deciduous  fruits  are  also  grown  successfully,  but 
the  increased  elevation  makes  them  later  in  maturing.  The  granitic 
rocks  in  most  cases  underlying  the  greater  part  of  this  region  have 
partially  or  fully  disintegrated  to  considerable  depth  and  the  jointed 
and  seamed  structure  of  the  upturned  rocks  permits  of  a  ready  down- 
ward movement  of  excess  water.  Where  the  soil  covering  is  not  thick, 
blasting  is  frequently  done  after  which  the  blast  hole  is  filled  with 
surface  soil  and  the  trees  planted.  There  is  ample  opportunity  for 
surface  waters  to  drain  away  from  the  basins  formed,  and  excellent 
results  are  obtained  from  this  practice. 


Fig.  16. — Irrigated  orchard  near  Auburn,  Placer  County 


IRRIGATION 

The  Placer  County  fruit  district  receives  water  from  ditches  owned 
by  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  Company,  which  obtains  its  water 
supply  from  Yuba  and  Bear  rivers.  The  present  system  represents 
largely  a  consolidation  of  old  mining  ditches  which  have  been  recon- 
structed and  are  now  utilized  for  power  and  irrigation ;  a  large  part  of 
the  water,  however,  is  still  being  used  for  mining  operations  in  Nevada 
County.  The  company  utilizes  20  lakes  and  reservoirs  and  has  recently 
enlarged  its  supply  by  the  construction  of  a  concrete  dam  at  Lake 
Spaulding.  When  the  system  is  completed  the  water  will  be  used  six 
times  in  power  development  in  addition  to  being  used  to  irrigate  a 
considerable  area  of  foothill  orchards.  An  important  feature  of  the 
development  work  being  undertaken  by  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric 
Company  is  the  enlargement  of  Bear  River  Canal  which  supplies  water 


352 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


for  irrigation  purposes.  This  canal  diverts  water  from  Bear  River 
near  Colfax,  from  whence  it  is  carried  to  lakes  Theodore  and  Arthur 
and  there  distributed  in  various  ditches.  At  present  something  over 
15,000  acres  are  irrigated,  but  the  enlargement  of  Bear  River  Canal 
together  with  the  increased  storage  at  Lake  Spaulding,  will  make 
possible  the  irrigation  of  an  additional  20,000  acres  of  land,  more  or 
less.  The  original  Bear  River  Canal  was  constructed  in  1851  by  hand 
labor  and  delivered  water  to  Auburn  and  vicinity  for  mining  purposes. 
The  Boardman  Canal  is  one  of  the  main  branches  supplying  the 
divide  between  Bear  River  and  North  Fork  of  American  River.     It 


Fig.  17. — "V  "  flume  used  for  conveying  water  down  steep  slopes.  Placer  Co. 


closely  parallels  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  and  extends  to  Rocklin, 
a  distance  from  the  point  of  beginning  of  77.3  miles.  Cold  Hill  Canal 
is  another  part  of  the  general  system,  this  canal  has  a  separate  diver- 
sion from  Bear  River  about  12  miles  downstream  from  the  head  of  Bear 
River  Canal.  The  entire  distributing  system  embraces  about  265  miles 
of  canals,  pipe  lines  and  flumes. 

The  delivery  of  water  on  this  system  is  different  from  that  on  any 
other  in  the  State.  This  is  due  mainly  to  the  hilly  character  of  the 
land  irrigated  and  to  the  peculiar  methods  of  irrigation  used.  The  use 
of  large  heads  of  water  is  impracticable  and  it  is  the  custom  to  deliver 
to  consumers  a  small  but  continuous  stream.  Under  present  practice 
1  inch  of  water  usually  serves  from  5  to  8  acres,  this  amount  being 
shifted  from  one  part  of  the  orchard  to  the  other  as  occasion  requires. 
The  irrigation  season  extends  from  May  1  to  October  1.    Water  is  sold 


Bulletin  253] 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


353 


at  the  rate  of  $45  per  miner's  inch  for  the  season.  The  records  of  the 
company  show  that  the  use  of  water  on  the  system  as  a  whole  is  1 
miner's  inch  to  5  acres,  which  makes  the  average  cost  of  water  to 
irrigators  $9  per  acre  per  season.  Many  of  the  best  orchardists,  how- 
ever, use  about  1  miner's  inch  to  7  acres.  The  company  delivers  water 
to  anyone  making  application  and  the  purchase  of  a  water  right  is  not 
required.  The  use  of  1  miner 's  inch  on  7  acres  would  cover  the  land  to 
a  depth  of  about  1  foot  for  the  irrigation  season  exclusive  of  rainfall. 
In  Pomona  Valley,  southern  California,  where  water  is  pumped  at 
great  cost,  1  miner 's  inch  serves  to  irrigate  8  acres  of  citrus  fruits  and 


Fig.  18. — Single  irrigation  furrow  and  clean  cultivation  near  Penryn,  Placer  Co. 

the  total  depth  applied,  including  rainfall,  is  about  3  feet,  or  about 
1  foot  less  than  at  Auburn.  At  Riverside,  where  canal  water  is  used, 
the  depth  of  irrigation  is  from  2  to  2%  feet  and  the  average  rainfall 
brings  the  total  up  to  about  3*4  feet. 

Water  is  measured  to  consumers  through  miner's  inch  boxes.  The 
miner's  inch  as  used  in  this  section  is  the  quantity  of  water  that  wrill 
pass  through  an  orifice  1  inch  square  under  a  head  of  6  inches  above 
the  center  of  the  orifice.  It  is  equal  to  11%  gallons  per  minute  or 
1/40  of  1  cubic  foot  per  second.  A  wooden  tube  or  box  is  placed  in 
the  side  of  the  ditch  bank  or  levee  so  that  the  center  of  the  opening 
is  6  inches  below  the  water  line  of  the  ditch.  No  provision  is  made  for 
fluctuation  or  change  of  head  in  the  main  supply.  This  system  of  dis- 
tribution requires  careful  maintenance  and  regulation  of  flow  into  the 
ditches.     The  company  has  made  actual  volumetric  measurements  of 


354 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 


the  water  delivered  to  each  irrigator  and  has  established  bench  marks 
whereby  the  discharge  of  a  box  can  be  ascertained  at  any  time. 

The  furrow  method  is  universally  adopted  in  orchard  irrigation. 

The  steep  hillsides  are  planted 
to  orchards  and  various  ingen- 
ious methods  are  used  to  sur- 
mount the  difficulties  of  irri- 
gation and  the  liability  of 
eroding  the  soil  by  running 
water.  A  common  method 
consists  of  running  one  fur- 
row down  the  steepest  slope 
for  each  row  of  trees  and 
making  a  semicircle  around 
each  tree,  as  shown  in  figure 
19.  The  semicircle  reduces 
the  grade  of  the  furrows  and 
consequently  the  velocity  of 
the  water,  thus  preventing 
erosion.  If  the  land  slopes  in 
two  directions,  the  water  is 
carried  around  the  tree  on  the 
uphill  side  ;it  a  distance  cal- 
culated to  serve  the  greatest 
number  of  roots.  The  slope 
of  the  land  is  supposed  by  the  growers  to  be  sufficient  to  carry  the 
water  to  the  roots  on  the  lower  side  of  the  tree.  Instead  of  a  semicircle, 
a  pocket  or  small  hole  is  often  made  above  each  tree1  and  is  kept  full 
of  water.  This  serves  to  replenish  the  furrow  and  to  hold  the  water 
until  it  can  sink  into  the  soil.  Occasionally  furrows  are  run  on  a 
contour  or  water  grade  as  shown  in  figure  21.  The  principal  objection 
to  this  method  is  that  in  case  the  flow  in  any  furrow  is  obstructed  or 
a  break  occurs,  the  water  flows  down  the  slope  to  the  next  furrow 
below,  and  so  on,  which  in  turn  overflows,  often  causing  much  damage 
by  washing.  Gophers  and  ground  squirrels  cause  many  breaks  in 
ditches  and  furrows,  and  in  case  of  the  furrows  these  are  most  apt  to 
cause  trouble  where  the  contour  method  is  used.  Iron  pipe  varying 
from  1  to  4  inches  in  diameter  is  used  to  convey  water  across  depres- 
sions and  to  tops  of  hills. 

The  amount  of  water  allowed  to  run  in  each  furrow  depends, upon 
the  slope  of  the  land.  In  some  cases,  3  or  4  gallons  a  minute  is  sufficient 
to  reach  the  end  of  the  row  and  not  cause  washing  of  the  soil.     The 


Pig.  19. — Diagram  showing  semi-circle 
irrigation  furrows  around  trees,  Placer 
County. 


Bulletin  253 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


355 


|^g|^|5^^A^^\  * 

^ife    '"-^flBfflS 

<^^ 

■  ■■■ 

lf^;'^V/\ 

^^'^^E^^^^^^^w^iJP^ 

SSSlk^ 

^^^^^^^^^^^^ 

- 

p^^ 

^SST^MItt^; 

5  ^^^{^i* 

«.           .ifc  ^9*3 

Fig.  20. — Photograph  showing  semi-circle  irrigation  furrows  around  trees, 

Placer  County 


length  of  the  furrow  varies  with  the  grade  and  size  of  the  orchard. 
Ordinarily  furrows  are  made  about  600  feet  long.  The  time  and  length 
of  irrigation  vary  with  the  maturing  of  the  crop.     Generally  water  is 


applied  about  every  two  weeks 
and  allowed  to  run  in  the  fur- 
row from  24  to  48  hours.  It 
is  then  changed  to  other  parts 
of  the  orchard  until  the  whole 
is  covered.  During  the  time 
the  fruit  is  sizing  or  swelling, 
irrigations  are  more  frequent. 
Observations  made  in  some 
of  the  orchards  indicate  that 
most  of  the  water  applied 
finds  its  way  below  the  great 
mass  of  roots  to  bedrock, 
whence  it  must  be  raised  by 
capillarity,  if  it  is  to  be  of 
any  service  to  the  trees.  That 
much  water  is  lost  as  under- 
ground flow  along  the  inclined 
bedrock  surface  is  evidenced 
by  the  seepage  at  the  line  of 


Head    -pitch 


Fig.  21. — Diagram  of  typical  furrow  and  ditch 
arrangement,  Placer  County  orchard 


356  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

bedrock  in  excavations  and  by  the  fact  that  many  orchards  on  the 
lower  levels  require  little  irrigation.  If  this  loss  could  be  obviated 
without  decreasing  the  efficiency  of  the  irrigation  and  without  exces- 
sively increasing  the  cost,  the  duty  of  water  could  be  increased. 


BUTTE  COUNTY  FOOTHILL  AREAS 

Irrigation  development  in  the  Butte  County  foothills  centers  mostly 
around  Oroville  in  Thermalito  and  Palermo  colonies  and  near  the  towns 
of  Wyandotte  and  Bangor.  Other  development  is  found  at  Paradise 
and  Cohasset. 

OEOVILLE   SECTION 

Oroville  is  located  on  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Sacramento  Valley  on 
Feather  River.  Undulating  hills  rise  gently  to  the  east,  followed  by  a 
series  of  ranges  gradually  increasing  in  height  until  the  crest  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  is  reached.  The  mountains  in  this  part  of  the  range 
are  not  so  lofty  as  in  other  parts  of  the  State.  They  are  heavily 
covered  with  timber  and  the  lower  foothills  support  a  coarse  growth  of 
chaparral,  scrub  oak,  and  "digger"  pine.  The  country  around  Oro- 
ville is  adapted  to  nearly  all  kinds  of  fruit,  but  olives  and  oranges  are 
the  principal  fruits  now  being  planted. 

The  climate  at  Oroville  and  vicinity  is  typical  of  Sacramento  Valley. 
The  summers  are  hot  and  dry  with  cool  nights  in  the  higher  altitudes. 
The  winters  are  mild  and  equable.  The  mean  monthly  temperature 
and  precipitation  at  Oroville  for  seasons  1885  to  1913,  inclusive,  are 
shown  in  figure  22.    The  mean  annual  rainfall  is  28.40  inches. 


Soils 

The  soils  in  the  Oroville  region  covered  by  this  report  including 
the  Thermalito  and  Palmero  colonies  consist  of  alluvial  and  sedi- 
mentary deposits  of  great  age.  They  are  gravelly  loams,  sandy  loams, 
loams,  and  clay  loams  of  red  to  reddish-brown  color. 

The  gravelly  loams  range  in  depth  from  2  to  4  feet  and  rest  upon 
a  hardpan  which  varies  in  thickness  from  6  inches  to  2  feet  and  is 
underlain  by  beds  of  gravel.  The  soil  is  usually  low  in  humus  and 
responds  readily  to  organic  matter.     The  gravel  present  makes  tillage 


Bulletin  253  j 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


357 


£     5 


fc  2 
1 
0 


difficult.    This  type  is  well  to  excessively  drained  and  has  a  sloping  to 
slightly  hilly  topography. 

The  sandy  loams  consist  of  2  to  6  feet  of  friable  soil  generally 
underlain  by  a  dense  hardpan.  Beneath  the  hardpan  the  material  is 
loose  and  friable  in  most  places,  but  in  other  places  gray  cemented 
beds  extend  beneath  the  hardpan  to  depths  of  many  feet.  Blasting 
where  the  hardpan  is  shallow  results  in  greatly  increased  yields,  but 
where  underlain  by  other  cemented  beds  it  forms  a  bowl  which  holds 
water  thus  creating  an  unsanitary  condition  for  plant  roots. 


Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

Ma 

y 

June 

Jul} 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct. 

Nov 

J 

ec. 

•'> 

r» 

tji 

'*•" 

rr5 

T7 

y' 

•y 

.'>• 

f: 

Ik 

r» 

y. 

.;:: 

•  * 

V*. 

;>. 

(V 

-B 

'•':• 

::;. 

..' 

K 

\if 

IB'  *■' 
Bf'- 

P 

•j: 

/,, 

y. 

■ 

i-g 

M 

;.- 

Wi 

Sg 

r.: 

;• 

1 

1 

ll 

''i. 

■ 

Pi 

•ecipit 

at 

ion 

E 

Ten 

ip 

er 

atur 

e 

80 


70     U* 


50  .1 


Fig.  22. — Mean  monthly  temperatures  and  precipitation  at  Oroville,  1885-1913 


The  loams  and  clay  loams  range  in  depth  from  1  foot  to  4  feet  and 
are  red  to  reddish-brown  in  color.  They  are  more  difficult  to  till  than 
the  lighter  types  but  generally  retain  moisture  longer  when  given  good 
attention.  They  rest  on  hardpan  at  various  depths  and  generally  have 
a  hummocky  surface.  The  loams  and  clay  loams  generally  occupy 
lower  and  more  level  areas  than  the  lighter  types.  Organic  matter 
greatly  improves  these  soils. 

Bodies  occuring  along  stream  courses  are  overflowed  somewhat 
during  periods  of  high  water. 

Considerable  citrus  plantings  have  been  made  on  the  higher  and 
better  protected  slopes  with  good  success.  Experience  has  shown, 
however,  that  it  is  generally  advisable  to  avoid  valleys  and  level  or 


358  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

slightly  depressed  areas  for  such  fruits  on  account  of  freezes  and 
stagnated  drainage  through  the  winter  months.  The  more  level  and 
gently  sloping  areas  are  very  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  olives, 
peaches,  grapes,  figs,  other  deciduous  fruits,  grain,  and  alfalfa. 


Irrigation 

Thermalito  colony  comprises  about  1000  acres  of  oranges,  olives, 
and  figs,  situated  on  the  rolling  plains  across  Feather  River,  north 
and  west  of  Oroville.  The  subdivision  of  the  land  in  this  neighborhood 
was  made  about  1888  and  during  the  next  few  years  approximately 
700  acres  of  trees  were  planted.  Water  is  supplied  by  the  Oro  Water, 
Light  and  Power  Company  and  development  here  has  been  possible 
only  through  irrigation.  The  Company  diverts  water  from  the  west 
branch  of  Feather  River,  about  30  miles  from  Oroville,  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Miocene  Ditch,  which  was  originally  built  for  mining 
purposes  and  is  now  used  for  both  power  and  irrigation.  Water  is 
delivered  through  the  colony  in  iron  pipes,  as  the  configuration  of  the 
country  makes  open  ditches  impracticable.  Hydrants  are  installed  at 
each  point  of  delivery  to  regulate  the  flow  of  water  to  consumers. 
Water  is  sold  to  irrigators  at  a  flat  rate  of  $5  per  acre  per  annum. 
This  plan  of  selling  water  encourages  wasteful  practice,  evidence  of 
which  is  seen  in  the  waterlogging  of  the  lower  levels,  which  now  need 
artificial  drainage.  With  an  irrigation  season  of  five  months,  and  a 
continuous  flow  through  the  pipe  lines  of  8  cubic  feet  per  second, 
sufficient  water  is  carried  to  supply  the  land  irrigated  to  a  depth  of 
3  feet. 

Palermo  Colony  lands  are  situated  about  6  miles  south  of  Oroville. 
The  highest  irrigated  lands  are  about  600  feet  above  sea-level,  but 
the  greater  part  of  the  irrigated  area  lies  below  an  elevation  of  300  feet. 
Water  is  supplied  by  the  Palermo  Land  and  Water  Company,  a  corpo- 
ration that  colonized  the  land  in  1888.  Water  is  diverted  from  South 
Fork    of  Feather  River  about  21  miles  above  Oroville. 

The  irrigated  area  in  Palermo  County  comprises  about  2000  acres 
of  oranges,  olives,  and  peaches,  the  greater  part  of  the  planted  area 
consisting  of  bearing  orchards.  Water  is  sold  to  irrigators  at  the  rate 
of  12%  cents  per  miner's  inch  for  24  hours.  With  an  average  of 
5  irrigations  during  the  season,  the  cost  of  water  varies  from  $3  to  $7 
per  acre. 

Water  is  applied  once  every  four  weeks,  and  is  allowed  to  run  in 
the  furrows  from  24  to  48  hours.     The  furrows  vary  in  length  from 


Bulletin  253 j  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  359 

500  to  1000  feet.  The  head  of  water  used  in  each  furrow  varies  with 
the  slope  and  character  of  the  soil.  Ordinarily,  1  miner's  inch  to  each 
furrow  will  sufficiently  reach  all  parts  of  the  land.  Generally  4  fur- 
rows are  run  between  the  trees.  Some  orchardists  use  fewer  furrows 
during*  the  early  age  of  the  tree  to  induce  deep  rooting.  After  each 
irrigation  the  land  is  cultivated  from  2  to  4  times. 

Measurements  made  in  1912  showed  that  the  average  duty  of  water 
for  oranges  was  1.27  acre-feet  per  acre,  and  for  olives,  1.23  acre-feet 
per  acre.9 


WYANDOTTE-BANGOR  SECTION 

The  soils  around  Wyandotte  and  Bangor,  southeast  of  Oroville, 
are  mainly  residual  from  schists.  Local  areas  of  old  stream  and  shore 
gravel  occur  in  this  belt,  which  add  difficulty  to  tillage  on  account  of 
the  cobble  and  gravel  present  in  the  soil.  The  schists  give  rise  to  red 
clay  loams  and  loams.  These  soils  vary  in  depth  from  2  to  6  or  more 
feet  and  rest  on  upturned  jointed  rocks.  The  texture  is  uniform  to 
the  underlying  rock.  The  loams  usually  occupy  a  somewhat  higher 
elevation,  are  lighter  in  texture,  more  friable,  and  easily  tilled.  Small 
areas  of  gravel  occur  within  the  loams  and  clay  loams  but  they  offer 
no  serious  obstruction  to  agriculture. 

South  Feather  Land  and  Water  Company  supplies  water  to  the 
land  around  Wyandotte  and  Bangor  and  also  to  a  few  scattered  tracts 
around  Forbestown  and  Swedes  Flat.  The  Company  has  succeeded  to 
the  rights  and  properties  of  the  Forbestown  Ditch  Company.  The  water 
supply  is  taken  from  Lost  Creek,  Orlova  Creek,  and  Pinkard  Creek, 
tributaries  of  Feather  River.  The  irrigated  area  comprises  about 
1200  acres  of  oranges,  olives  and  deciduous  fruits.  The  cost  of  water 
to  irrigators  is  $36.50  per  miner's  inch  per  annum,  which  amounts 
to  about  $6  per  acre.  Ultimately  irrigation  by  South  Feather  Land 
and  Water  Company  is  expected  to  approach  7000  acres  of  foothill 
land  around  Wyandotte  and  2000  acres  of  foothill  land  around  Bangor. 


PAEADISE  RIDGE 

Paradise  Ridge  lies  about  15  miles  east  of  Chico,  between  Butte 
Creek  and  West  Branch  of  Feather  River.  There  are  about  12,000 
acres  of  land  available  for  agriculture  in  this  belt,  the  mean  elevation 
approximating  2000  feet.     The  region  consists  of  long  sloping  ridges 

o  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Office  Expt.  Sta.  Bull.  254,  pp.  53-55. 


360  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA— EXPERIMENT  STATION 

and  narrow  valleys  and  it  is  well  protected  from  winds  and  freezes. 
The  slope  is  south  and  southwest  and  the  fall  is  ample  for  good 
drainage  and  freedom  from  alkali.  The  soil  is  a  deep  red  fertile  clay 
loam  to  loam  and  usually  contains  more  humus  than  the  plains  soils 
below.  It  varies  in  depth  from  1  foot  to  10  feet,  with  an  average 
usually  sufficient  for  the  best  development  of  fruit  trees.  The  soil  and 
subsoil  are  quite  similar  in  texture,  but  the  color  becomes  lighter  as 
the  depth  increases  until  the  soil  gradually  merges  into  light  brown 
or  light  yellowish-gray  andesitic  tuff,  from  which  it  is  derived.  The 
slope  of  the  region  gives  it  good  drainage  and  no  trouble  from  alkali 
is  present.  Considerable  timber  covers  much  of  the  undeveloped  land 
and  in  many  instances  is  sufficient  to  pay  for  the  clearing.  The  soils 
are  tilled  with  moderate  ease  and  very  little  grading  is  necessary  for 
irrigation. 

The  water  supply  comes  mainly  from  Little  Butte  Creek  through 
a  small  ditch  owned  by  the  Oro  Water,  Light  and  Power  Company. 
The  irrigated  area  comprises  about  600  acres  and  an  additional  100 
acres  is  watered  by  the  old  Cherokee  Mining  Ditch.  Irrigation  exten- 
sion on  the  Paradise  Ridge  depends  upon  an  increased  water  supply. 
Most  of  the  water  is  now  used  in  the  development  of  power,  and 
storage  will  be  necessary  for  future  development.  A  large  supply 
of  irrigation  water  per  acre  is  not  needed,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
1  acre-foot  per  acre  per  annum  delivered  at  the  small  holdings  would 
suffice  for  most  of  the  area. 


COHASSET  RIDGE 

Cohasset  Ridge  begins  about  12  miles  northeast  of  Chico,  and  lies 
between  Chico  and  Rock  creeks.  The  ridge  is  about  14  miles  long, 
and  ranges  in  elevation  from  1500  to  3500  feet.  The  topography  con- 
sists of  long  ridges  and  small  valleys  of  steeper  grade  than  those  in 
the  Paradise  Ridge  section.  Brush  covers  the  lower  part  of  the  ridge, 
but  is  replaced  by  oak,  cedar,  and  pine  with  increase  in  elevation. 

The  soils  of  Cohasset  Ridge  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Para- 
dise Ridge  and  are  derived  from  andesitic  tuff.  No  extensive  plantings 
of  fruit  have  yet  been  made,  and  that  which  is  grown  is  matured 
without  irrigation.  The  products  of  this  region  are  hauled  to  market 
by  wagon. 


BULLETIN  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  361 


SHASTA  AND   TEHAMA   COUNTIES 

The  foothills  in  Shasta  and  Tehama  counties  include  an  irregular, 
broken  area  east  of  Cow  Creek  and  Sacramento  River  from  Bella  Vista 
southward  to  the  Butte  County  line,  a  few  miles  southeast  of  Vina. 

The  tillable  land  in  this  belt  in  Shasta  County,  counting  the  small 
pockets  along  the  creek  bottoms  and  suitable  slopes,  ridges,  and  hills, 
amounts  to  about  24,000  acres.  Nearly  10,000  acres  of  this  is  along- 
North  and  South  Cow,  Oak  Run,  Upper  Bear,  and  Clover  creeks. 
That  part  in  Tehama  County  covers  about  46,000  acres  and  is  confined 
to  a  narrow  belt  along  the  margin  of  Sacramento  Valley  as  far  north 
as  Red  Bluff. 

The  elevation  of  the  Shasta  and  Tehama  foothill  lands  ranges  from 
about  400  to  2000  feet.  The  rainfall  at  the  lower  margin  is  about 
20  to  26  inches  yearly  and  increases  with  elevation.  The  soils  suitable 
for  agriculture  occur  as  small  alluvial  deposits  along  streams,  as  resid- 
ual material  on  the  slopes  and  ridges,  and  as  gravelly  bench  lands, 
jutting  into  the  margin  of  the  Sacramento  Valley.  The  first  named 
deposits  range  from  fine  sandy  loams  to  heavy  silt  loams  and  they  are 
in  most  cases  uniform  in  texture  to  6  feet  deep.  They  are  well  drained 
and  free  from  overflow  except  in  local  depressions  and  flat  areas  along 
stream  channels.  No  alkali  is  present  and  the  soils  are  tilled  with  ease. 
They  are  grayish-brown  to  reddish-brown  in  color,  are  retentive  of 
moisture,  and  respond  to  organic  matter.  They  are  utilized  for  the 
growing  of  clover,  timothy,  grain,  alfalfa,  truck,  and  deciduous  fruits. 
The  tillable  areas  at  high  elevations  consist  of  red  loams  and  clay  loams 
of  uniform  texture  from  1  foot  to  6  feet  deep.  No  hardpan  is  present 
and  the  soils  rest  upon  the  parent  rock.  The  clay  loams  usually  occupy 
slightly  lower  elevations  than  the  loams,  but  both  are  well  drained  and 
free  from  alkali.  They  contain  a  small  to  moderate  amount  of  humus 
and  the  small  amounts  of  gravel  occasionally  present  offer  little  obstruc- 
tion to  tillage.    The  rough  areas  are  timbered  and  are  used  for  grazing. 

Water  is  obtained  from  numerous  small  streams  and  creeks.  The 
present  irrigated  area  comprises  about  10,000  acres.  Filings  have 
been  made  on  nearly  all  of  the  streams  for  power  purposes  and  numer- 
ous areas  formerly  irrigated  have  been  purchased  by  power  companies 
and  the  use  of  water  changed  from  irrigation  to  power.  Agricultural 
development  will  depend  largely  upon  the  attitude  of  the  power  inter- 
ests and  upon  transportation. 


362  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


YUBA  COUNTY 

The  foothill  section  of  Yuba  County  suitable  for  agriculture  lies 
mainly  between  the  200-foot  and  500-foot  contours.  It  is  a  narrow 
belt  about  5  or  6  miles  wide,  beginning  a  few  miles  east  of  Wheatland 
and  following  the  lower  extension  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  to  Honcut 
Creek,  a  distance  of  about  20  miles.  The  main  development  is  in 
Browns  Valley,  about  13  miles  northeast  of  Marysville. 


Fig.  23. — Typical  rolling  foothills  near  Browns  Valley,  Yuba  County 

The  surface  features  consist  in  a  series  of  low  rolling  hills  inter- 
spersed with  small  narrow  valleys.  A  growth  of  brush  and  scrub  oak 
constitutes  the  native  vegetation.     The  rainfall  is  between  20  and  25 

inches  and  is  not  sufficient  to   produce   crops  satisfactorily   without 
irrigation. 

The  soils  are  red  clay  loams  and  loams,  derived  principally  from 
diabase,  schist,  and  andesitic  tuff.  They  are  fertile  and  usually  of 
sufficient  depth  for  successful  fruit  culture.  They  are  more  deficient 
in  humus  than  soils  at  higher  elevations.  The  clay  loams  average 
about  2  to  3  feet  deep,  are  of  uniform  texture,  and  rest  on  upturned 
rocks  at  various  depths  below  the  surface.  The  loams  are  similar  to 
the  clay  loams  in  depth,  but  are  lighter  in  texture.  Both  types  arc 
relatively  low  in  humus,  well  drained,  and  free  from  alkali.  They 
are  too  shallow  for  fruit  culture  in  many  places,  being  underlain  by 


Bulletin  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  363 

thick,  gray,  cemented  beds  near  the  surface.  Elsewhere  a  layer  of 
hardpan  is  present.  Some  clearing  is  necessary  before  planting  to 
fruits. 

Browns  Valley  Irrigation  District  was  organized  in  1888  under 
the  Wright  Irrigation  District  Act,  and  comprises  about  44,500  acres. 
This  district  has  labored  under  the  difficulties  and  discouragements 
which  have  attended  similar  attempts  to  form  irrigation  districts. 
Construction  of  the  canal  system  was  commenced  in  1889  and  was 
completed  in  1893  at  a  cost  of  about  $175,000.  Water  is  diverted  from 
North  Fork  of  Yuba  River  above  its  junction  with  Middle  Yuba.  The 
main  ditch  is  48  miles  long  and  water  is  distributed  throughout  the 
district  by  5  principal  branches;  10,500  acres  of  the  district  are  above 
the  ditches,  and  of  the  part  below  the  ditch  it  is  estimated  that  only 
5000  to  8000  acres  can  be  irrigated.  About  1750  acres  were  irrigated 
in   1913. 

In  1896  Browns  Valley  Irrigation  District  granted  a  fifty-year 
franchise  to  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  Company  for  the  use  of  its 
entire  appropriation  of  10,000  miner's  inches  for  the  development  of 
power,  in  return  keeping  the  ditches  in  repair  for  the  District.  Water 
is  distributed  by  employees  of  the  District  and  to  meet  this  expense  a 
charge  of  $3  per  inch  per  season  is  made.  The  duty  for  alfalfa  is  con- 
sidered about  1  inch  per  acre,  thus  making  the  cost  about  $3  per  acre 
per  annum.  For  orchards  about  1  inch  to  3  or  4  acres  is  considered 
necessary.  The  principal  irrigated  crops  are  alfalfa  and  clover.  All 
kinds  of  fruits  can  be  successfully  grown,  but  most  of  the  orchards 
have  been  poorly  kept  and  have  a  deserted  appearance.  Alfalfa  is 
irrigated  by  flooding  from  field  ditches  and  satisfactory  yields  are 
obtained. 


SACRAMENTO   COUNTY 

A  belt  of  low  foothills  about  6  miles  wide  follows  along  the  east  side 
of  Sacramento  County.  It  covers  an  area  of  about  150  square  miles 
and  varies  in  elevation  from  about  200  to  700  feet. 

The  topography  of  this  foothill  section  varies  from  rounded  hills 
to  benches,  slopes,  ridges,  and  deep  narrow  winding  valleys.  The 
eastern  half  of  this  belt  is  underlain  by  alternating  areas  of  diabase, 
slate,  and  schist,  extending  in  a  northwestern  and  southeastern  direc- 
tion. These  rocks  have  disintegrated  into  red  and  yellow  friable  loams 
and  clay  loams.  .  The  soils  from  these  rocks  range  in  depth  from  1  foot 
to  6  feet  and  in  most  places  are  sufficiently  deep  for  fruit  culture  with- 
out blasting.    Drainage  is  good  to  excessive.    Varying  amounts  of  brush 


364 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 


and  stone  are  present  in  places,  which  require  moving  before  crops 
can  be  planted.  No  alkali  is  present  and  no  drainage  from  overflow 
occurs.  With  irrigation  a  wide  range  of  profitable  fruits  is  possible. 
West  of  this  belt  the  soils  are  derived  from  old  shore  and  river 
gravels  and  from  gray  beds  of  clay,  all  of  which  usually  contain  a 
cemented  layer  at  various  depths  below  the  surface.  A  number  of 
intermittent  streams  occur  in  the  belt  which  have  carved  out  small, 
narrow  valleys  and  deposited  recent  alluvium  along  their  courses. 
The  soils  of  the  lower  belt  consist  of  red  gravelly  loams  and  gray  to 
brown  loams,  and  range  in  depth  from  1  foot  to  6  feet  or  more.     Id 


ft-.  j,:5*>*>*-   '%•>*■  -»v**'T  -  i" ;  Jj&P'r*- 


■a~rt 


%4%.    M 


Fig.  24. — Irrigating  an  orange  orchard  near  Fairoaks,  Sacramento  County,  with 
two  furrows  and  with  sacks  in  head-ditch  to  prevent  washing 

places  a  hardpan  is  present  and  blasting  then  becomes  necessary  for 
the  best  returns. 

The  main  development  in  the  Sacramento  foothill  belt  is  around 
Fairoaks,  Orange  Vale,  and  Folsom,  about  15  miles  northeast  of 
Sacramento.  Elsewhere  the  land  is  dry-farmed  to  grain  or  used  as 
pasturage.  More  than  60,000  orange  trees  have  been  planted  in  the 
Fairoaks  and  Orange  Vale  colonies.  Large  plantings  of  olives,  almonds, 
grapes,  figs,  peaches,  some  cherries,  and  apricots  have  also  been  made. 
There  are  many  other  favorable  locations  in  this  belt  for  the  above 
mentioned  crops  as  soon  as  irrigation  is  provided. 

Most  of  the  area,  except  around  Michigan  Bar.  is  moderately  well 
supplied  with  transportation  facilities  and  is  well  connected  with  Sac- 
ramento and  other  valley  points. 


Bulletin  253] 


SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY 


365 


The  country  in  the  vicinity  of  Fairoaks  and  Orange  Vale  is  now 
supplied  with  water  by  the  American  Canon  Water  Company,  which 
purchased  the  rights  and  properties  of  the  North  Fork  Ditch  Company 
in  1908.  For  many  years  the  ditches  were  used  for  mining  purposes 
for  which  they  were  originally  built.  Water  is  diverted  from  North 
Fork  of  American  River  a  few  miles  below  Auburn  by  means  of  a 
masonry  dam  310  feet  long  and  25  feet  high.  The  main  canal  follows 
along  the  general  line  of  American  River  for  a  distance  of  25  miles 
to  a  subreservoir  about  2  miles  northeast  of  Folsom.  The  present 
irrigated    area  comprises  about  4600  acres,  mostly  in  orchards.     The 


Fig.  25. — Testing  depth  of  percolation  with  6-foot  steel  rod  near  Fairoaks, 

Sacramento  County 

irrigation  season  extends  from  about  May  1  to  October  1.     Water  is 
sold  at  a  flat  rate  of  $3  per  acre  per  season. 


EL  DORADO   COUNTY 

El  Dorado  County,  south  of  Placer  County,  extends  from  the  foot- 
hills in  the  vicinity  of  Folsom  easterly  to  Lake  Tahoe  and  the  Nevada 
state  line.  The  American  and  Cosumnes  rivers  traverse  the  county 
and  divide  it  into  a  series  of  irregular  and  undulating  plateaus  cut  by 
steep  ravines  and  gulches.  The  hills  are  generally  covered  with  a 
coarse  growth  of  underbrush,  small  oak,  and  a  second  growth  of  yellow 
pine.  In  the  higher  altitudes  are  valuable  forests,  which  are  included 
in  El  Dorado  National  Forest  Reserve. 


366  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

El  Dorado  County  attained  fame  from  being  the  first  county  in 
which  gold  was  discovered  in  California.  A  few  fruit  trees  planted 
by  the  early  miners  demonstrated  the  success  of  fruit  growing  and  this 
promises  to  be  an  important  industry.  The  annual  shipments  of  fruits 
from  Placerville  now  amount  to  about  250  carloads  and  the  shipments 
will  rapidly  increase  as  young  orchards  come  into  bearing.  With  in- 
tensive cultivation  fruits  may  be  grown  in  the  higher  altitudes  without 
irrigation,  but  with  the  application  of  small  quantities  of  water  a 
greater  yield  is  obtained  and  irrigation  is  generally  conceded  to  be 
necessary  and  beneficial.  A  branch  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Rail- 
road connects  Placerville  with  Sacramento.  Other  sections  of  the 
county  are  remote  from  railroad  points  and  agricultural  development 
will  be  slow  until  transportation  facilities  are  afforded. 


SOILS 

The  soils  of  the  El  Dorado  foothill  belt  vary  considerably  and  are 
derived  from  a  wide  range  of  rocks.  A  belt  of  upturned  slates  ranging 
from  1  to  3  miles  wide  begins  south  of  Cosumnes  River  and  extends 
northward,  including  the  country  around  Placerville  with  an  elevation 
of  about  1800  feet,  Garden  Valley  with  an  elevation  of  1900  feet,  and 
Georgetown  with  an  elevation  of  2200  feet.  The  soils  are  yellowish- 
brown  to  yellowish-gray  clay  loams  and  loams.  In  places  the  color 
is  quite  red,  due  to  the  influence  of  wash  from  the  adjoining  redder 
amphibolite  and  diabase  soils.  Slate  frequently  outcrops  at  the 
surface  but  the  soil  varies  from  1  foot  to  6  or  more  feet  deep.  The 
soils  are  friable,  easily  tilled,  productive,  and  well  adapted  to  fruit 
culture.  They  are  well  drained  and  free  from  alkali.  No  hardpan 
is  present  and  only  in  occasional  places  is  blasting  necessary  for  fruit 
tree  planting.  Beginning  at  Diamond  Springs  and  extending  northwest 
beyond  Magnolia  there  is  a  belt  of  light  reddish  to  grayish  sandy  loams 
and  loams  derived  from  granitic  material.  This  belt  covers  about  30 
square  miles  and  varies  in  elevation  from  800  to  about  1500  feet. 
Diamond  Springs,  Granite  Hill,  Coloma,  and  Lotus  are  the  main 
towns  located  in  this  group  of  soils.  The  light  texture  of  these  soils 
makes  tillage  easy  and  their  more  rapid  absorption  of  heat  causes 
fruit  grown  on  them  to  mature  earlier  than  on  the  heavier  soils.  The 
soils  range  in  depth  from  2  to  more  than  6  feet.  They  are  friable, 
absorb  moisture  readily,  and  are  capable  of  growing  a  wide  range  of 
cover  crops.  They  are  well  drained  and  contain  no  alkali.  No  hardpan 
is  present.    Water  is  necessary  during  summer  for  the  best  returns. 


Bulletin  253 J  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  367 

To  the  west  of  Placerville,  extending  down  to  the  valley  floor,  is 
a  series  of  formations,  chief  among  which  are  schists,  diabase,  and  gab- 
bordiorites.  These  rocks  vary  considerably  in  hardness  and  give  rise  to 
deep  red  clay  loams  and  loams.  The  elevation  of  this  belt  ranges  from 
about  300  to  2000  feet.  Latrobe,  El  Dorado,  Shingle  Springs,  and 
Clarksville  are  the. principal  towns.  This  belt  of  soils  covers  about 
300  square  miles,  about  two-thirds  of  which  is  suitable  for  agriculture. 
The  soils  vary  greatly  in  depth  and  in  many  places  are  too  shallow  for 
fruits  without  blasting.  Drainage  is  good  to  excessive  in  many  places 
and  no  alkali  nor  overflow  occurs.  Much  of  the  soil  is  from  2  to  6  feet 
deep  and  is  capable  of  an  intensive  agriculture  when  water  and  trans- 
portation are  obtained.  Most  of  these  soils  are  now  used  for  pasturage. 
Part  of  this  area  is  somewhat  rocky  and  gravelly  and  covered  with 
brush.  Wherever  the  rocks  are  upturned  at  a  high  angle  and  are 
schistose  or  slaty  in  character,  tree  roots  frequently  penetrate  down- 
ward into  the  crevices  and  seams  many  feet.  In  such  places,  blasting 
and  filling  the  bowl  formed  with  fresh  soil  has  proved  very  successful 
in  fruit  culture.  Where  the  underlying  rocks  are  massive  this  practice 
is  not  advisable. 

IRRIGATION 

Water  for  irrigation  is  supplied  by  three  principal  systems  which 
were  built  for  mining  purposes.  These  old  mining  ditches  are  being 
enlarged  and  improved,  storage  reservoirs  are  being  constructed,  and 
a  new  development  is  taking  place  in  the  utilization  of  water  for 
power  and  irrigation.  The  cost  of  water  to  irrigators  is  20  cents  per 
miner's  inch  per  24  hours.  Assuming  a  depth  of  1V2  feet  per  acre 
applied  to  orchards  during  the  season,  the  cost  would  be  $6  per  acre. 

The  Sierra  Water  Supply  Company  succeeded  to  the  rights  and 
properties  of  the  El  Dorado  Water  and  Deep  Gravel  Mining  Company. 
Water  is  diverted  from  South  Fork  of  American  River  31  miles  above 
Placerville  and  distributed  in  several  ditches  to  Granite  Hill,  Camino, 
and  Diamond  Springs.  About  1000  acres  are  reported  under  irri- 
gation. 

The  Crawford  Ditch  System,  sometimes  known  as  the  Diamond 
Ridge  Ditch,  was  built  for  mining  purposes  and  is  still  chiefly  used 
for  mining.  It  diverts  water  from  North  Fork  of  Cosumnes  River  at 
Steeley  's  Fork  and  is  added  to  from  Camp  Creek,  Clear  Creek,  Squaw 
Hollow,  and  other  creeks  which  it  crosses.  About  500  acres  are  irri- 
gated in  the  vicinity  of  Diamond  Springs,  El  Dorado,  and  Shingle 
Springs.     This  system  comprises  about  80  miles  of  main  ditches  and 


368 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 


laterals   and  covers   an   extensive  territory   that   will   eventually   be 
brought  under  irrigation. 

The  Truckee  Eiver  General  Electric  Company  has  acquired  the 
ditches  of  the  Loon  Lake  Water  and  Power  Company,  which  supplies 
water  to  the  Georgetown  divide.  Water  is  diverted  from  Gurley  and 
Pilot  creeks.  One  branch  of  the  system  extends  westerly  to  Cool  and 
another  carries  water  to  Garden  Valley  and  Kelsey.  About  1 500  acres 
are  reported  under  irrigation. 


10 


3    5 


tf     4 


Jan.    Feb.   Mar.  Apr.   May  June  July  Aug.  Sept.  Oct.   Nov.  Dec. 

_|_ 

1 1  t 

ItxEEit 

Fig.  26. — Mean  monthly  rainfall  at  Nevada  City,  Nevada 
County,  1865-1913 


NEVADA  COUNTY 

Nevada  County  .lies  north  of  Placer  County  and  is  separated  from 
it  by  South  Yuba  and  Bear  Rivers.  Middle  Yuba  bounds  the  County  on 
the  north.  These  rivers  furnish  the  water  supply  for  mining  and 
irrigation.  Nevada  County  is  widely  known  for  its  production  of  gold 
and  its  quartz  mines  still  produce  over  $2,000,000  annually.  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  at  Nevada  City,  elevation  2580  feet,  as  shown 
by  the  record  from  1865  to  1913,  inclusive,  is  55.32  inches.  Figure  26 
shows  the  uneven  distribution  of  the  rainfall  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
during  the  months  of  June,  July,  August,  and  September  there  is  ?- 


BULLETIN  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  369 

season  of  drought.  On  account  of  the  large  annual  rainfall,  the  need 
of  irrigation  is  sometimes  questioned,  the  fact  being  lost  sight  of  that 
practically  none  of  the  rain  falls  during  the  fruiting  season.  The 
shallower  soils  are  soon  robbed  of  moisture  by  the  high  summer  temper- 
atures through  evaporation.  The  benefits  of  irrigation  in  this  section 
are,  however,  becoming  more  generally  recognized  and  the  use  of  water 
will  become  greater  as  agriculture  is  more  generally  practiced. 

The  Nevada  County  foothills  are  located  in  the  western  fourth  of 
the  county  and  range  in  elevation  from  about  500  to  3000  feet  with  a 
rainfall  varying  from  about  24  inches  at  the  lowest  altitude  to  about 
56  inches  at  the  highest.  About  one-third  of  this  area  is  suitable  for 
agriculture,  but  the  greater  part  of  this  has  no  railroad  transportation. 

The  topography  of  Nevada  County  is  mountainous  and  broken  and 
consists  of  a  series  of  small,  narrow  valleys,  such  as  Penn  and  Pleasant 
valleys,  and  irregular  areas  of  rounded  hills,  moderate  slopes,  and 
ridges.  Grass  Valley  and  Nevada  City  are  the  principal  centers  and 
are  connected  by  an  electric  railroad  in  addition  to  the  steam  railway. 
Other  towns  are  North  San  Juan,  French  Corral,  Spenceville,  and 
Chicago  Park.  The  rocks  in  the  northeast  half  of  this  belt  are  mainly 
granodiorites  which  give  rise  to  light  red  and  grayish-brown  sandy 
loams  and  loams  from  2  to  6  feet  deep.  The  other  half  is  under- 
lain principally  by  diabase  which  has  produced  red  clay  loams  and 
loams  which  average  from  2  to  4  feet  deep.  The  soils  of  the  latter 
group  are  somewhat  more  durable  than  the  granitic  soils  but  do  not 
mature  their  fruit  quite  so  early.  The  soils  are  usually  several  feet 
deep  and  respond  to  the  same  cultural  methods  recommended  for  such 
soils  in  El  Dorado  County.  They  are  well-drained  and  free  from 
overflow  and  alkali. 

The  report  of  the  Horticultural  Commissioner  for  Nevada  County 
shows  over  80,000  fruit  trees  in  the  Nevada  County  agricultural  belt, 
not  including  vines,  which  number  more  than  60,000.  Pears,  peaches, 
apples,  and  plums,  in  order  named,  lead.  The  quality  and  coloring  of 
fruit  in  this  belt,  like  that  grown  in  the  other  foothill  counties,  rank 
very  high. 

Clean  culture  in  generally  practiced  except  where  water  is  plentiful 
and  then  the  orchard  is  tilled  only  once  a  year.  Hoed  crops  grown 
between  the  rows  greatly  reduce  the  cost  of  bringing  the  orchard  into 
bearing.  Cover  crops  have  proven  very  successful  on  these  soils  for 
fruit  culture.  Pears,  besides  being  planted  in  areas  of  good  drainage, 
are  also  successfully  grown  in  valleys  where  moisture  content  is  too 
great  for  other  fruits. 


370  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  principal  irrigation  development  of  Nevada  County  is  in  the 
western  portion.  The  Excelsior  Water  and  Mining  Company  supplies 
water  for  irrigation  in  Penn  and  Pleasant  valleys  and  around  Smarts- 
ville.  The  main  canals  and  laterals  of  the  irrigation  system  are  practic- 
ally the  same  as  were  used  40  years  ago  for  mining  operations.  The 
chief  crops  irrigated  are  alfalfa,  wild  grasses,  and  deciduous  fruits. 
The  Nevada  County  Narrow  Gauge  Railway  affords  the  only  means 
of  railroad  transportation  and  connects  Nevada  City  with  Colfax  on 
the  main  line  of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad. 


AMADOR    COUNTY 

Amador  County  is  rich  in  mineral  deposits  and  but  little  attention 
has  been  given  to  agriculture,  aside  from  the  growing  of  grain.  The 
famous  Mother  Lode  traverses  the  County  from  northwest  to  southeast, 
on  which  numerous  quartz  mines  are  located. 

From  about  the  500-foot  contour  upwards,  the  soils  of  Amador 
County  are  derived  mainly  from  slates,  with  intervening  belts  of 
diabase  and  schist.  They  are  red  to  yellowish  loams  and  clay  loams 
and  are  friable  for  several  feet  in  depth.  Where  the  soils  are  less  than 
3  feet  deep  blasting  is  advisable  for  fruit  culture. 

On  the  steeper  slopes  and  ridges  the  soils  are  generally  more  or 
less  gravelly  and  seldom  extend  to  a  depth  greater  than  2  feet.  The 
loams  and  gravelly  loams  predominate  in  such  places  and  rock  outcrop 
is  not  infrequent. 

The  clay  loams  are  similar  in  color  to  the  loams,  but  are  usually 
deeper,  contain  less  gravel,  and  are  more  retentive  of  moisture.  They 
occupy  the  more  gentle  slopes  and  small  valleys,  and  are  more  difficult 
to  till. 

Both  types  are  well  drained,  free  from  alkali,  and  are  not  affected 
by  overflow  at  any  time.  Torrential  rains  sometimes  cause  gullies  to 
form  over  the  surface,  but  this  can  generally  be  avoided  by  proper 
methods  of  tillage.  The  soils  are  relatively  low  in*  humus  and  respond 
well  to  applications  of  organic  matter.  The  bedrock  is  upturned  at  a 
high  angle  and  may  be  blasted  successfully  for  fruits  where  necessary. 

Below  the  500-foot  contour,  from  lone  westward,  the  soils  are 
derived  mainly  from  gray  clays  and  sandstone.  The  soils  resting  on 
this  formation  correspond  closely  in  value  and  in  suitability  to  crops 
to  the  soils  of  the  lower  foothills  in  Calaveras  and  Stanislaus  counties. 
They  range  in  texture  from  loams  to  clay  loams. 


Bulletin  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  371 

The  loams  occupy  the  higher  slopes,  are  gray  to  grayish-brown  in 
color,  and  average  about  2  feet  deep.  They  are  deficient  in  humus  and 
rest  on  gray  cemented  beds  which  in  many  places  are  many  feet  thick. 
Local  areas  of  gravel  are  present,  but  they  are  not  extensive  enough 
to  seriously  interfere  with  tillage  or  crop  growth. 

The  clay  loams  are  of  the  same  color  as  the  loams  but  are  generally 
deeper  and  occupy  the  more  gentle  slopes  and  small  valleys.  At  2  to 
6  feet  deep  they  rest  on  gray  cemented  beds  which  are  usually  too  thick 
to  be  blasted  successfully. 

These  two  types  are  low  in  humus,  are  generally  known  as  shallow, 
droughty  soils,  and  are  of  little  value  for  crops  without  water.  They 
support  a  sparse  growth  of  brush  and  grass  and  generally  require 
some  leveling  for  fruits  and  alfalfa.  Drainage  is  good  and  alkali 
rarely  occurs  except  in  small  basin-like  depressions.  Organic  matter, 
irrigation,  and  transportation  are  the  controlling  factors  of  agriculture 
in  this  belt. 

Jackson,  Martell,  Sutter  Creek,  Amador,  Plymouth,  lone,  and 
Buena  Vista  are  the  principal  towns  in  the  foothill  belt  of  this  county, 
lone  and  Jackson  valleys  are  fertile  and  capable  of  a  high  state  of 
cultivation.  Intensive  development  has  been  retarded  by  large  hold- 
ings, one  grant  controlling  35,000  acres.  Present  irrigation  is  confined 
to  small  tracts  of  from  2  to  5  acres  and  there  are  only  a  few  irrigated 
tracts  over  100  acres  in  extent.  The  county  is  well  covered  with  ditches 
which  supply  water  for  mining  and  the  generation  of  power.  Chief 
among  these  are  canals  owned  by  the  Pacific  Gas  and  Electric  Company, 
the  Consolidated  Amador  and  Volcanic  Hydraulic  and  Gold  Mining 
Land  Company,  and  Hayward,  Hobart,  and  Lane.  It  is  thought 
that  eventually  there  will  be  reorganization  and  readjustment  of 
these  systems  which  will  result  in  a  larger  quantity  of  water  being 
made  available  for  irrigation.  Martell  and  lone  are  on  a  branch 
railroad  leading  to  Gait,  a  station  on  the  main  line  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad. 


CALAVERAS   COUNTY 

Calaveras  lies  south  of  Amador  County  and  is  separated  from  it 
by  Mokelumne  River.  The  Stanislaus  River  forms  its  southern  bound- 
ary. Agricultural  pursuits  in  this  count}^,  as  in  Amador,  have  been 
neglected  owing  to  the  mining  and  timber  resources.  The  western 
and  northwestern  portions  are  mainly  devoted  to  raising  wheat  and 
barley,  both  for  grain  and  hay.  The  hills  and  mountains  are  extensively 


372  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

used  during  the  summer  months  for  the  grazing  of  sheep  and  cattle 
from  the  plains  of  the  San  Joaquin.  Irrigation  is  confined  to  vegetable 
gardens  and  small  orchards  and  water  is  taken  from  old  mining 
ditches.  Wherever  attention  has  been  given  to  fruit  raising,  good 
results  have  been  obtained.  Transportation  is  needed  to  foster  the 
fruit  industry. 

Nearly  all  of  the  foothill  area  of  Calaveras  County  suitable  for 
agriculture  lies  below  the  2000-foot  contour.  Angels  Camp,  San 
Andreas,  and  Mokelumne  Hill  are  the  principal  towns  above  1500 
feet,  and  Valley  Springs,  Wallace,  Jenny  Lind,  Milton,  and  Copper- 
opolis  are  the  main  towns  from  the  1000-foot  elevation  to  the  base  of 
the  foothills.  Several  small  valleys,  chief  among  which  is  Salt  Springs 
Valley  northwest  of  Copperopolis,  are  located  in  the  area. 

With  the  exception  of  a  small  area  of  granodiorite  at  Mokelumne 
Hill  and  one  east  of  San  Andreas,  the  main  rocks  giving  rise  to 
the  soils  in  this  belt  are  schists,  slates,  and  diabase.  The  soils  derived 
from  these  rocks  are  reddish  clay  loams  and  loams  and  range  in  depth 
from  1  foot  to  6  feet.  They  are  not  difficult  to  till,  are  friable,  and  are 
deficient  in  humus.  Drainage  is  good  and  no  alkali  is  present.  The 
soils  on  the  steeper  hillsides  and  ridges  are  shallow  and  sometimes 
gravelly,  but  on  the  more  gently  sloping  areas  are  deeper  and  better 
suited  to  crops.  From  the  300-foot  to  the  500-foot  levels  the  soils 
are  mainly  gray  loams  derived  from  underlying  beds  of  gray  clays 
and  sandstones.  These  soils  are  usually  shallow  and  poorly  adapted 
to  agriculture.  They  range  in  depth  from  1  foot  to  6  feet,  but  average 
about  2  feet  deep.  They  are  friable,  easily  tilled,  well  drained,  free 
from  alkali,  and  low  in  humus.  Peaches,  apricots,  plums,  grapes, 
truck,  grain,  and  alfalfa  do  well  if  water  is  provided.  Some  leveling 
is  necessary  for  crops.  In  small  valleys  and  on  gentle  slopes,  however, 
the  soils  are  deeper  and  when  supplied  with  water  produce  good  crops. 

Dry-farm  grain  and  some  alfalfa  are  grown  in  the  lower  and  more 
level  valleys.  The  soils  generally  are  easily  tilled,  friable  and  require 
organic  matter  for  best  yields.  Irrigation  is  essential  for  fruit  culture 
but  the  amount  necessary  decreases  with  higher  elevations.  Water 
for  irrigation,  organic  matter,  and  transportation  are  the  governing 
factors  of  successful  agriculture  on  the  soils  of  this  county.  Branch 
railroads  connect  Wallace,  Valley  Springs,  and  Milton  with  outside 
points. 


Bulletin  253]  sierra  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  373 


TUOLUMNE  COUNTY 

Tuolumne  County  occupies  a  central  position  in  the  Sierra  foothill 
belt.  Tuolumne  and  Stanislaus  rivers  with  their  tributaries  divide  the 
county  into  a  series  of  irregular  plateaus,  ridges,  and  small  valleys. 
Table  Mountain  forms  a  striking  feature  of  the  topography  of  this 
section.  Its  summit  is  covered  by  a  heavy  flow  of  basaltic  lava  of  a 
dark  color  and  dense  texture.  Owing  to  the  more  important  industries 
of  mining  and  lumbering,  there  has  been  no  real  impetus  to  agricultural 
development.  Farming  is  limited  to  the  growing  of  grain  and  hay. 
The  early  miners  set  out  a  number  of  small  orchards  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  fruit  for  domestic  use.  Where  the  trees  received  sufficient 
care  fruit  of  good  quality  was  successfully  grown. 

The  foothills  of  Tuolumne  County  suitable  for  agriculture  embrace 
the  region  around  Sonora,  Tuolumne,  Columbia,  Jamestown,  Jackson- 
ville, Groveland,  and  Big  Oak,  and  also  a  number  of  small  isolated 
areas.  This  belt  embraces  an  area  of  about  125  square  miles  and  varies 
in  elevation  from  about  1000  to  3000  feet. 

The  soils  of  this  belt  vary  considerably,  due  to  the  varying  kinds  of 
rocks  giving  rise  to  them.  An  extensive  area  of  granodiorite  begins 
a  short  distance  east  of  Sonora  and  gives  rise  to  light  red  sandy  loams 
and  loams.  These  soils  vary  in  depth  from  1  foot  to  6  feet  or  more, 
are  fertile,  warm  quickly  in  springtime,  and  mature  their  fruit  early. 
Rock  outcrop  occurs  locally  but  the  soil  covering  is  usually  of  suffi- 
cient depth  for  deep  rooted  crops.  Drainage  is  good  and  no  alkali  is 
present.  Tillage  is  not  difficult  except  on  the  steep  slopes  where 
gravelly  areas  occur.  The  heavier  soils  from  the  slates  and  diabase 
are  usually  much  redder  than  those  from  granodiorite  and  vary  greatly 
in  depth.  They  are  well  drained  and  easily  prepared  for  crops  except 
where  covered  with  brush  and  timber.  Southern  and  western  slopes 
are  generally  droughty.  These  soils  rank  among  the  best  for  fruit 
culture. 

The  apple  industry  ranks  first  in  this  region  and  is  receiving 
considerable  attention.  The  success  of  the  fruit  industry  must  depend 
largely  upon  irrigation.  The  average  annual  precipitation  at  Sonora, 
based  on  a  record  of  26  years,  is  35.79  inches,  almost  all  of  which 
falls  during  the  winter  months.  Owing  to  the  shallow  soils,  steep 
slopes  and  consequent  excessive  drainage,  in  many  places  very  little 
of  the  moisture  in  retained  in  the  soil  for  the  dry  season.  Water  for 
irrigation  is  supplied  by  the  Sierra  and  San  Francisco  Power  Company 
which  has  succeded  to  the  rights  and  properties  of  the  Tuolumne 


374  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

Water  Company.  The  ditches  are  old  mining  ditches  and  have  an 
aggregate  length  of  126  miles,  86  miles  of  which  are  now  used  for 
irrigation  and  power  purposes.  Water  is  diverted  from  South  Fork 
of  Stanislaus  River  and  delivered  to  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Sonora, 
Columbia,  Jamestown,  Soulsbyville,  and  Tuolumne.  The  charge  for 
water  in  12y2  cents  per  miner's  inch  per  24  hours  run.  Assuming  an 
average  use  of  about  2  acre-feet  per  acre,  the  cost  will  be  $5  per  acre 
per  annum.  The  irrigated  area  comprises  about  1200  acres,  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  which  is  given  over  to  the  production  of  apples 
in  the  higher  altitudes,  while  the  remainder  is  devoted  to  small  alfalfa 
patches  and  gardens. 

Transportation  is  afforded  by  the  Sierra  Railway.  Good  tillage, 
the  liberal  use  of  green  manure  crops,  proper  irrigation,  and  an 
effective  selling  organization  appear  to  be  the  main  factors  essential 
to  successful  commercial  fruit  growing  in  the  region. 


MARIPOSA   COUNTY 

Mariposa  County  lies  entirely  within  the  Sierra  foothills  and 
mountains.  Merced  River,  which  has  its  head  waters  in  Yosemite 
National  Park,  is  the  only  stream  of  importance  traversing  the  county, 
its  waters  being  used  for  irrigation  on  the  plains  near  Merced.  This 
river,  together  with  Bear,  Mariposa,  and  Chowchilla  creeks,  divides 
the  county  so  that  it  consists  of  numerous  irregular  plateaus,  long 
ridges,  and  narrow  valleys.  The  area  south  of  Bear  Creek  is,  in 
general,  treeless.  In  the  vicinity  of  Mariposa,  between  elevations  of 
1500  and  2500  feet,  the  hills  and  ravines  are  covered  with  a  thick 
growth  of  chaparral  and  manzanita  and  a  scattered  growth  of  white 
oak  and  bull  pine.  In  higher  altitudes  there  are  valuable  forests  of 
yellow  and  sugar  pine  and  giant  sequoias  of  the  Mariposa  Big  Tree 
Grove. 

About  275  square  miles  of  land  capable  of  cultivation  lies  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  county,  chiefly  south  and  west  of  Lewis  and 
around  Hornitos,  Mariposa,  Bootjack,  and  Jersey  dale,  and  in  Bear 
Valley.  There  are  also  about  20  square  miles  in  the  region  of  Coulter- 
ville  north  of  Merced  River  and  a  number  of  other  small  valleys 
and  coves,  capable  of  an  intensive  agriculture.  Development  of  the 
foothill  belt  here  has  been  slow,  however,  on  account  of  poor  trans- 
portation and  scarcity  of  available  water  for  irrigation.  There  are 
many  small  storage  reservoir  sites  along  the  various  creeks   and   a 


Bulletin  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  375 

number  of  locations  for  larger  ones  which,  when  utilized,  will  cover 
much  of  the  tillable  land. 

The  foothill  belt  of  this  country  varies  in  elevation  from  400  feet 
in  the  western  part  of  the  county  to  about  3000  feet  a  few  miles  east 
of  Bootjack.  The  rainfall  is  about  the  same  as  at  similar  elevations 
in  Tuolumne  County  to  the  north. 

The  soils  from  Lewis  westward  consist  of  yellowish-gray,  red, 
and  reddish-brown  loams  and  clay  loams.  They  are  friable,  easily 
tilled,  retentive  of  moisture,  productive,  and  usually  of  sufficient  depth 
for  the  growing  of  all  crops.  Small  areas  of  gravel  are  present  locally. 
The  clay  loams  have  the  same  range  in  depth  as  the  loams,  but  are 
usually  rolling  and  retain  water  a  little  better.  Both  types  are  well 
drained,  free  from  alkali,  and  not  affected  by  overflows. 

Very  little  or  no  brush  occurs  on  this  part  of  the  foothills,  and  the 
land  is  easily  cleared  and  prepared  for  crops.  Some  adobe  occurs  on 
the  lower  slopes.  The  granitic  soils  are  reddish  to  grayish  sandy 
loams  and  loams  varying  considerably  in  depth.  The  soils  from  the 
other  rocks,  except  the  slates,  are  red  clay  loams  and  loams.  They 
are  not  difficult  to  till,  are  usually  of  good  depth,  and  when  supplied 
with  water  give  good  yields. 

About  four-fifths  of  the  tillable  area  of  this  part  of  the  foothill 
belt  lies  west  of  Mariposa.  The  soils  and  range  of  crops  possible  in 
Mariposa  County  are  similar  to  those  in  Tuolumne  County.  Water 
is  required  for  most  crops,  except  grain  and  grapes,  for  the  best  results. 
This  can  be  supplied  by  storage  reservoirs  only,  as  the  streams  are 
intermittent  in  character  and  there  is  no  rainfall  during  summer. 
Irrigation  is  confined  to  a  few  small  gardens  and  fruit  farms,  which 
depend  upon  springs  and  wells  for  their  water  supply.  About  430 
acres  were  irrigated  in  1913.  With  the  improved  transportation,  an 
increased  water  supply,  and  good  farm  practice  this  county  is  capable 
of  much  development  along  agricultural  lines. 


MADERA,  MERCED,  AND  STANISLAUS  COUNTIES 

The  foothill  district  of  Stanislaus,  Merced,  and  Madera  counties  is 
the  lower  extension  of  the  western  Sierra  slopes  where  they  merge  into 
the  plains  below.  The  belt  averages  about  5  miles  wide  and  is  nearly 
100  miles  long.  The  elevation  ranges  from  about  200  to  500  feet, 
and  the  rainfall  varies  from  about  12  inches  in  the  southern  part  to 
about  17  inches  at  La  Grange,  midway  in  the  belt,  and  about  20  inches 
in  the  northern  end. 


376  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT  STATION 

The  topography  of  this  section  of  the  foothill  belt  consists  of  low 
hills,  slopes,  and  small  valleys.  In  places  a  hog-wallow  surface  occurs 
which  requires  leveling  before  irrigation  can  be  practiced.  The  soils10 
are  mainly  reddish-brown  to  gray  or  brown  sandy  loams,,  loams  and 
clay  loams,  with  small  areas  of  dark  colored  adobe  on  some  of  the 
slopes. 

The  reddish-brown  to  brown  soils  have  a  hog-wallow  surface.  They 
vary  in  depth  from  1  foot  to  4  feet  and  rest  upon  a  dense  hardpan 
which  is  nearly  always  present.  Below  the  hardpan  the  soil  is  usually 
friable  and  blasting  usually  gives  excellent  results.  Occasionally  gray 
semi-cemented  beds  occur  beneath  the  hardpan,  and  in  such  places 
blasting  frequently  does  more  harm  than  good. 

The  gray  loams  and  clay  loams  near  the  margin  of  the  plains  are 
the  weathered  products  of  deep  semi-cemented  beds  of  clay  anfl 
volcanic  material.  These  soils  are  usually  shallow.  Small  amounts 
of  rounded  to  angular  gravel  are  present  in  places  over  this  part  of 
the  foothills.  The  higher-lying  areas  are  residual  and  have  no  hardpan. 
They  are  usually  not  difficult  to  till  and  are  well  drained. 

Where  water  is  available,  peaches,  plums,  figs,  grapes,  berries, 
truck,  and  some  other  deciduous  fruits  are  grown.  Water  is  the  con- 
trolling factor  for  intensive  crops  in  this  belt  and  humus  is  needed 
for  the  best  returns.  Nearly  all  of  the  area  is  used  for  pasture  and 
dry  farmed  to  grain  at  the  present  time.  Irrigation  is  confined  to 
a  rather  narrow  belt  along  the  streams  passing  through  this  belt  of 
soils.  Gravity  canals  are  the  only  source  of  water  to  date,  but  indica- 
tions show  that  pumping  from  wells  may  become  an  important  feature 
in  places  in  the  future.  Small  storage  reservoirs  will  also  have  an 
important  place. 


KERN  COUNTY  CITRUS  BELT 

The  foothill  area  of  Kern  County  comprises  a  belt  of  elevated 
land  lying  east  of  Famoso  and  Bakersfield  and  extending  southerly  to 
the  junction  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  with  the  Tehachapi  Mountains.  The 
elevation  of  this  belt  ranges  from  about  500  to  1200  feet  and  the 
average  annual  rainfall  is  about  5  inches.  The  climate  is  very  favor- 
able for  the  early  maturity  of  citrus  fruits  and  damage  from  freezes 
seldom  occurs. 


io  For  fuller  description  of  soils  of  these  counties  see  U.  S.  Dept.  Agr.,  Bureau 
of  Soils,  Soil  Surveys  of  Madera,  Merced,  and  Modesto-Turlock  areas. 


Bulletin  253]  SIERRA  NEVADA  FOOTHILLS  SURVEY  377 

In  part  the  area  may  be  considered  as  the  lower  extension  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  and  in  part  as  a  gradually-sloping  mesa  merging  into 
the  more  level  valley  plains  to  the  west.  This  belt  of  territory  is  from 
6  to  10  miles  wide  and  about  60  miles  long.  The  soils  consist  prin- 
cipally of  sandy  loams  and  loams.  Local  areas  of  lighter  or  heavier 
material  occur,  but  they  are  small  and  of  minor  importance  agri- 
culturally. The  soil  is  grayish-brown  to  brown  or  light  reddish-brown 
in  color,  is  generally  low  in  humus,  and  is  easily  tilled.  A  noticeable 
amount  of  clay  is  present,  making  the  soil  sticky  when  wet.  The 
clay  content  of  the  subsoil  frequently  increases  to  a  depth  of  about 
6  feet  and  in  some  places  approaches  a  heavy  loam  to  clay  loam.  The 
red  color  of  the  surface  soil  is  usually  intensified  in  the  subsoil  but 
in  many  places  the  soil  is  uniform  in  color  and  texture  to  6  feet  or 
more  deep.  The  substratum  below  6  feet  usually  becomes  lighter  in 
texture  and  resembles  the  surface  generally.  The  sand  particles  are 
generally  coarse  and  gritty  and  are  mainly  quartz.  Some  gravel  is 
occasionally  present  in  the  soil  and  subsoil  but  it  is  confined  to  small 
irregular  areas  and  is  not  a  serious  obstruction  to  tillage.  Gravelly 
areas  are  more  pronounced  on  the  higher  mesas. 

The  soils  of  the  mesas,  lower  ridges,  and  slopes  consist  mainly 
of  old  alluvial  and  sedimentary  material,  and  that  on  the  higher 
foothills  is  mostly  residual  from  granites  and  from  metamorphic  and 
sedimentary  rocks.  A  small  amount  of  colluvial  material  occurs  on 
the  steeper  slopes  over  the  entire  belt. 

The  greatest  deficiency  of  the  soils  in  this  belt  of  territory  is  in 
humus,  and  water  is  the  controlling  factor  of  plant  growth.  A  wide 
range  of  green  manure  crops  thrive,  however,  which  make  it  possible 
to  supply  organic  matter.  Besides  improving  the  texture,  organic 
matter  will  greatly  increase  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil. 
No  alkali  or  hardpan  is  present  on  the  higher  slopes,  ridges,  and  mesas, 
but  bare  spots  showing  an  excess  of  salts  begin  to  appear  and  become 
more  numerous  as  the  valley  trough  is  approached. 

Where  water  is  available  in  this  belt,  indications  point  to  the 
possibility  of  an  extensive  citrus  development.  At  the  present  time, 
the  lack  of  irrigation  development  is  due  to  an  insufficient  gravity 
water  supply.  The  principal  irrigation  development  centers  around 
Edison,  8  miles  east  of  Bakersfield,  where  600  acres  have  been  planted 
to  oranges  in  two  sub-divisions.  "Water  is  obtained  by  pumping  from 
wells,  and  mutual  water  companies  have  been  organized  for  the  purpose 
of  supplying  water  to  each  sub-division,  and  the  charges  for  water 
are  based  upon  the  actual  cost  of  operation  and  maintenance.  On  one 
sub-division,  each  10-acre  grove  is  given  a  run  of  60  miner's  inches  of 


378  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT  STATION 

water  for  24  hours  each  month  during  the  irrigation  season,  at  a  cost 
of  16%  cents  per  inch,  which  amounts  to  $1  per  acre  per  irrigation. 
On  another  tract  the  charge  is  25  cents  per  inch,  which  amounts  to 
$1.50  per  acre  per  irrigation.  Water  is  usually  applied  five  to  seven 
times  during  the  season. 

The  wells  at  Edison  are  10  inches  in  diameter  and  from  350  to 
500  feet  deep,  the  lift  varying  from  130  to  230  feet.  The  pumping 
installations  consist  of  electric  motor  and  deep-well  pumps,  the  latter 
yielding  from  40  to  100  miner's  inches  of  water. 


SUMMARY 

Approximately  8000  square  miles  or  5  per  cent  of  the  total  land 
surface  of  California  is  included  in  the  foothills  along  the  western 
slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  arable  portion  is  estimated  at  Va  to  % 
of  the  total  area,  but  only  about  70,000  acres  are  now  under  irrigation. 

Water  is  available  for  irrigation  from  numerous  streams  of  the 
Sierra  and  only  storage  works  are  needed  to  conserve  large  volumes 
uow  running  to  waste  to  make  this  belt  of  elevated  land  one  of  the 
most  important  agricultural  districts  in  California.  In  many  places 
ditches  are  already  provided  which  were  constructed  at  an  enormous 
cost  for  mining  operations.  Irrigation  provides  a  new  way  for  the 
continued  uses  of  these  ditches  coupled  with  the  use  of  water  for  the 
generation  of  power. 

The  foothills  have  a  most  valuable  asset  in  topographical  features 
and  climate  which  assure  the  early  ripening  of  fruits.  A  marked 
variation  in  elevation,  rainfall,  and  temperature  makes  possible  a 
wide  range  of  profitable  crops.  The  soils  are  well  adapted  to  the 
growing  of  fruit.  Within  the  thermal  belt  the  orange  and  olive 
industries  are  established  on  a  firm  basis.  The  oranges  from  the 
north  are  usually  picked  and  marketed  before  free  movement  begins 
in  the  south. 

Deciduous  fruits  have  long  proved  profitable  and  the  shipments 
of  fresh  or  "green"  fruits  from  the  northern  counties  have  added 
materially  to  the  wealth  of  the  State.  .The  apple  finds  a  suitable 
home  and  flourishes  in  the  higher  elevations  of  the  foothills. 

The  greatest  handicaps  in  most  districts  are  the  lack  of  proper 
transportation  facilities  and  adequate  wrater  supplies.  These  will 
undoubtedly  be  provided  in  increasing  measure  as  more  people  become 
familiar  with  and  take  advantage  of  the  natural  resources  of  this  old, 
romantic,  yet  in  an  agricultural  sense,  new  territory  of  California. 


STATION    PUBLICATIONS    AVAILABLE    FOR    DISTRIBUTION 


1897. 

1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1914. 


No. 
168. 


REPORTS 
Adaptation,   and  Grafting. 


Appendix  to  Viticultural 


Resistant  Vines,  their  Selection 

Report  for.  1896. 
Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment   Station  for   1898-1901. 
Report  of  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station  for   1901-03. 
Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1903-04. 
Report  of  the   College  of  Agriculture   and  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,   July, 

1913-June.    1914. 


BULLETINS 

No. 


174. 

177. 


178. 
182. 


Observations   on    Some   Vine   Diseases 
in   Sonoma  County. 

169.  Tolerance  of  the  Sugar  Beet  for  Alkali. 

170.  Studies  in  Grasshopper  Control. 
A  New  Wine-Cooling  Machine. 
A    New    Method    of    Making   Dry    Red 

Wine. 
Mosquito  Control. 
Analysis    of    Paris    Green    and    Lead 

Arsenate.     Proposed  Insecticide  Law. 

183.  The  California  Tussock-Moth. 

184.  Report    of    the    Plant    Pathologist    to 

July  1,  1906. 

185.  Report  of  Progress  in   Cereal   Investi- 

gations. 
195.  The  California  Grape  Root-worm. 
197.   Grape  Culture  in  California ;  Improved 

Methods     of     Wine-making;      Yeast 

from  California  Grapes. 
The  Grape  Loaf-Hopper. 

Report    of    the    Plant    Pathologist    to 
July   1,    1909. 

The  Control  of  the  Argentine  Ant. 
208.   The  Late  Blight  of  Celery. 
211.   How  to   Increase   the   Yield   of  Wheat 
in  California. 


198. 
203. 


207. 


212. 
213. 
216. 

225. 
227. 
230. 
234. 
240. 
241. 
242. 
243. 

244. 
246. 
248. 

249. 
250. 
251. 


California  White  Wheats. 

The  Principles  of  Wine-making. 

A    Progress    Report    upon    Soil    and 

Climatic     Factors     Influencing    the 

Composition  of  Wheat. 
Tolerance  of  Eucalyptus  for  Alkali. 
Grape  Vinegar. 
Enological  Investigations. 
Red  Spiders  and  Mites  of  Citrus  Trees. 
Commercial  Fertilizers. 
Vine  Pruning  in  California.     Part  I. 
Humus  in   California   Soils. 
The  Intradermal  Test  for  Tuberculosis 

in  Cattle  and  Hogs. 
Utilization  of  Waste  Oranges. 
Vine  Pruning  in  California.     Part  II. 
The  Economrc  -Value  of  Pacific   Coast 

Kelps. 
Stock  Poisoning  Plants  of  California. 
The  Loquat. 

Utilization  of  the  Nitrogen  and  Or 
ganic  Matter  in  Septic  and  Imhoff 
Tank   Sludges. 

Deterioration   of   Lumber. 


CIRCULARS 


No. 
65.  The  California   Insecticide  Law. 

68.  The  Prevention  of  Hog  Cholera. 

69.  The  Extermination  of  Morning-Glory. 

70.  Observations   on   the   Status   of   Corn 

Growing  in  California. 
76.   Hot  Room  Callusing. 

79.  List  of  Insecticide  Dealers 

80.  Boys'   and   Girls'   Clubs. 

82.  The    Common    Ground    Squirrels    of 

California. 

83.  Potato  Growing  Clubs. 

84.  Mushrooms  and  Toadstools. 

87.  Alfalfa. 

88.  Advantages  to  the  Breeder  in  Testing 

his  Pure-bred  Cows  for  the  Register 
of  Merit. 
91.   Disinfection  on  the  Farm. 


No. 
92. 


Infectious 
Cows. 


Abortion    and    Sterility    in 


100.  Pruning  Frosted  Citrus  Trees. 

101.  Codling    Moth    Control    in    the    Sacra- 

mento Valley. 

102.  The  Woolly  Aphis. 

106.  Directions  for  using  Anti-Hog-Cholera 

Serum. 

107.  Spraying  Walnut  Trees  for  Blight  and 

Aphis  Control. 

108.  Grape  Juice. 

109.  Community  or  Local   Extension  Work 

by  the  High  School  Agricultural  De- 
partment. 

110.  Green  Manuring  in  California. 

111.  The  Use  of  Lime  and  Gypsum  on  Cali- 

fornia Soils. 


CIRCULARS—  (Continued) 


No. 

113.  Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture. 

114.  Increasing  the  Duty  of  Water. 

115.  Grafting  Vinifera  Vineyards. 

116.  Silk  Worm  Experiments. 

117.  The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small 

Pumping  Plant. 

118.  The  County  Farm  Bureau. 

119.  Winery  Directions. 

120.  Potato    Growing    in    the    San    Joaquin 

and  Sacramento  Deltas  of  California. 


No. 

121.  Some    Things    the    Prospective    Settler 

Should   Know. 

122.  The  Management  of   Strawberry   Soils 

in  Pajaro  Valley. 

123.  Fundamental    Principles    of    Co-opera- 

tion in  Agriculture. 

124.  Alfalfa  Silage  for  Fattening  Steers. 

125.  Aphids  on  Grain  and  Cantaloupes. 

126.  Spraying  for  the  Grape  Leaf  Hopper 

127.  House   Fumigation. 

128.  Insecticide  Formulas. 


Relief  map  of  California  showing  in  solid  black  the  general  location  of  the  arable 

areas  in  the  Sierra  foothills 


